1.Video Lesson

2.Objective

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to: –

1. Define genetic engineering.

2. Explain & list the application genetic engineering in different areas

Brainstorming questions

• What are the ethical implications of genetic engineering in agriculture and medicine?
• How can genetic engineering techniques be improved or expanded to address global health challenges?
• In what ways can biotechnology, including genetic engineering, contribute to sustainable environmental practices?

key words

• Genetic Engineering: The process of transferring DNA from one organism to another, resulting in genetic modification to achieve desired traits or characteristics.
• Genetic Modification (GM): A set of techniques used to alter the genetic material of an organism.
• Gene Editing: Techniques that involve making specific changes to the DNA of an organism.
• Transgenic Animals and Plants: Organisms that have had genes from another species inserted into their genetic material to enhance traits like disease resistance or production quality.
• Animal Breeding: The practice of selectively breeding animals to enhance desirable traits such as growth rate, milk production, or disease resistance.
• Tissue Culture: A technique for propagating plants quickly and in large quantities using cells grown in a controlled environment.
• Pharmaceutical Production: The use of genetic engineering to produce drugs like insulin, growth hormone, and tissue plasminogen activator.
• Antibiotic Production: The use of microorganisms like Actinomycetes and Penicillium to produce antibiotics that inhibit the growth of pathogenic organisms.
• Biosensor: A device that uses biological molecules to detect chemical compounds and convert the detection into an electrical signal.
• Forensic Science: The application of scientific methods to investigate crimes, including DNA analysis and fingerprinting.
• Bioremediation: The use of microorganisms, plants, or their enzymes to detoxify and restore polluted environments.
• Biofuel: Fuel derived from organic materials such as plants and animal waste, considered renewable because its sources can be replenished.
• Biogas Production: The generation of methane and other gases from organic matter through anaerobic digestion by microorganisms.
• Composting: The aerobic microbial process of converting organic waste into a stable, nutrient-rich material useful for soil amendment.
• Biopesticides: Biological agents like bacteria, fungi, and viruses used to control pests.
• Herbicide Resistance: The genetic modification of plants to withstand herbicides that would otherwise destroy them along with the weeds.
• Recombinant DNA: DNA that has been artificially formed by combining constituents from different organisms.
• Polyphosphate-Accumulating Organisms (PAOs): Bacteria used in wastewater treatment to remove phosphorus.
• Biohydrometallurgy: The use of microbes to extract metals from ores as part of biomining

Genetic engineering is the process of transferring DNA from one organism into another that result in genetic modification. Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification or gene editing, is a set of techniques used to alter the genetic material of an organism. This process involves making specific changes to the DNA of an organism to achieve desired traits or characteristics. Genetic engineering used in the production of pharmaceuticals, gene therapy and devolvement of transgenic animal and plant.

Animal breeding and transgenic animals, and plants and disease, and pest
management

Animal breeding addresses the genetic value of livestock. Selecting for breeding animals with superior traits in growth rate, egg, meat, milk, or wool production, or with other desirable traits has revolutionized the livestock and plant production throughout the entire world. There are many potential applications of transgenic methodology in developing new and improved strains of livestock. Practical applications of transgenic technology in livestock production include enhancing the prolificacy and reproductive performance, increasing feed utilization and growth rate, improving carcass composition, improving milk production and/or composition, modification of hair or fiber, and increasing disease resistance in animals. Gene transfer is a relatively rapid way – of altering the genome of domestic livestock.

Tissue culture

Plants can be propagated quickly and in large quantity by tissue culture technique. Plants produced in large amount using this technique include palm trees, orchids, bananas, and carrots. Using this technology large quantity of food with desired quality can be produced in reasonably little area. Genetic Engineering has produced seedless fruits such as watermelon, papaya, orange and grape. it important to reduce the crop cycle.

Health & wellbeing

Human druges such as insulin for diabetes, growth hormone for dwarfism & tissue plasminogen activator for heart attack victim and for animal diseases like bovine being produced in transgenic bacteria, pigs etc Thera are several applications of biotechnology in health, these includes: –

• Antibiotic production
• biosensor
• forensic science

 Production of antibiotic

Microorganisms are used for the production of antibiotic that reduce the growth of pathogenic organisms. The common microorganisms that used to produce antibiotic are: –

• Actinomycets streptomyce :- filaments fungus that produce streptomycin

• Penicillium: – mold fungus that produce a known antibiotic penicillin. it discovered by Alexander Fleming. penicillin chemical altered to be effective and tailor them for use in different disease. eg. Ampicillin, Methicillin and oxacillin

• Vaccine for Bordetella pertussis, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholera, and mycobacterium tuberculosis are produced in large batch cultures. In the same way Corynebacterium diphtheria and Clostridium tetani are synthesis toxins from which toxoids for  prepared for DT vaccine

Biosensor

Biosensor is a rapid developing area of biotechnology.  This field linked microorganisms and their products with electrode and convert into electric current to measure specific change in beer, pollutant, glucose, acetic acid, glutamic acid biochemical oxygen demand.  Biosensor measure cephalosporin, nicotinic acid & several vitamins. Biosensors recognize streptavidin-biotin system.One of the most interesting recent developments using these approaches is a handheld aflatoxin detection system for use in monitoring food quality. This automated unit, based on a new column- based immunoaffinity procedure, can fluorometric be used for 100 measurements before being recharged. The unit can detect from 0.1 to 50 ppb of aflatoxins in a 1.0 ml sample in less than 2 min. Aflatoxins. Rapid advances are being made in all areas of biosensor technology.

Forensic science

Forensic science is the application of scientific principles and techniques to investigate crimes and gather evidence for use in the legal system. It encompasses various disciplines, each focusing on different types of evidence and analysis methods. Forensic biologists inspect crime scenes to examine potential sources of evidence using blood, saliva, and hair, and then they analyze the specimens in a laboratory, focusing on DNA analysis. Additionally, fingerprints are also important tools to investigate crime and determine the paternity case of a child.

Application in biomining

Biomining is an innovative process that uses microorganisms to extract valuable metals from ores and waste materials. It offers a more environmentally friendly and cost-effective alternative to traditional mining methods. This application used in microbiological mining and application in the environment.

Microbiological mining

Microbiological mining, or biomining, leverages microorganisms to extract valuable metals from ores, concentrates, and waste materials. This technique is eco-friendly and cost-effective compared to traditional mining methods. This need spawned the new discipline known as biohydrometallurgy, the use of microbes to extract metals from ores. Copper and other metals originally were thought to be leached from the wastes of ore crushing as a result of an inorganic chemical reaction such as those reactions used to extract metals from ores. It was then discovered that this leaching is due to the action of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Acidophilic bacteria such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans are commonly used for their ability to oxidize sulfide minerals.

Application in the environment

Microbiological mining, or biomining, has various environmental applications beyond the extraction of metals. Here are some key areas where it contributes to environmental sustainability: –

• solid waste treatment, composting and land fill
• waste water treatment
• Bioremediation
• Biofuel
• Biogas
• Composting

Solid waste treatment, composting and landfill

Microbiological techniques play a significant role in the treatment of solid waste, including composting and landfill management. These methods help in reducing the environmental impact of waste, recovering valuable resources, and improving the sustainability of waste management practices. Most of it ends up in landfill sites- huge holes in the ground where refuse is deposited to prevent it being a hazard. The non-biodegradable components (metals, plastics, rubble, etc.) remain there more or less indefinitely; however, over a period of time biodegradable material (food waste, textiles, paper, etc.) undergoes a decomposition process. The rate at which this happens is dependent on the nature of the waste and the conditions of the landfill but can take several decades. Aerobic processes give way to anaerobic ones and a significant result of the latter is the generation of methane. Modern land fill site incorporated systems to remove fire/explosion hazard and may put it to good use as a fuel source. Many householders separate organic waste items such as vegetable peelings and grass cuttings and use them to make compost. This practice, apart from providing a useful gardening supplement, also reduce materials that deposit. Fungus and bacteria particularly actinomycetes bacteria break down organic matters into CO2, water, humus and relatively stable compounds.

waste water treatment

Wastewater treatment is a critical process for protecting water resources and public health. Microbiological methods play a key role in treating wastewater by breaking down organic matter, removing nutrients, and neutralizing pathogens. Sewage is the term that use describe liquid waste including human excreta. The effectiveness of the treatment process is judged chiefly by the reduction of the wastewater’s biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). This is a measure of the amount of oxygen needed by microorganisms to oxidise its organic content. A high BOD leads to the removal of oxygen from water, a certain indicator of pollution. There are three stage of water treatment These are primary, secondary and tertiary treatment

Bioremediation

Bioremediation is an eco-friendly and effective method that uses microorganisms, plants, or their enzymes to detoxify and restore polluted environments. It leverages natural biological processes to degrade, remove, or neutralize contaminants in soil, water, and air. Many pollutants degraded by the help of saprophytic organisms that is known as biodegradation. During bioremediation via microorganisms, enzymes produced by a microorganism modify a toxic pollutant by altering or transforming its structure. This event is called biotransformation. In many cases, biotransformation results in biodegradation, in which the toxic pollutant is degraded, were yielding less complex, nontoxic metabolites. Alternatively, biotransformation without biodegradation can also occur. For example, toxic heavy metals can often be rendered less toxic by oxidation or reduction reactions carried out by microorganisms.

Biofuel

Biofuel is a type of energy source derived from organic materials, known as biomass. This can include plant materials, agricultural crops, and even animal waste. Biofuels are considered renewable because the raw materials used to produce them can be replenished relatively It need for independent of fossil fuels is driven by both political and environmental concerns. This has accelerated interest in and use of biofuels – fuel (chiefly
ethanol) that is obtained by the fermentation of plant material. While corn is currently the substrate of choice, the use of crop residues could significantly boost biofuel yields. Crop residues are the plant material that is usually left in the field after harvest, and it consists of cellulose and hemicellulose. These polysaccharides are polymers of five different hexoses and pentose: glucose, xylose, mannose, galactose, and arabinose. Naturally these sugars fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain to xylose and E. coli strain that expresses Zymomonas mobilis genes is able to ferment all these sugars. In the other way cellulose and hemicellulose degraded to their monomers. This is commonly done by heating the plant material and treating it with acid, which is both expensive and corrosive. To harvest cellulose- and hemicellulose monomers using enzymes that produced from thermoacidophiles strains with a biological treatment.

Biogas production

Biogas is produced by bacteria and archaeans from organic matter in fermenters. Biogas is a combustible gas produced from the anaerobic breakdown of organic matter such as manure, waste plant matter from crops and household organic waste by the activities of the microorganisms. Depending on the construction of the fermenter, biogas is mostly methane with some carbon dioxide. Three different communities of anaerobic microbes are required.

Advantages of biogas
1.Biogas is a fuel used to cook food, and light lamps.
2.Slurry left after biogas production forms a soil conditioner (manure).
3. Biogas is much cheaper than Liquefied Petroleum Gas for home use.

composting

Composting is an aerobic microbial driven process that converts solid organic wastes into a stable, sanitary, humus-like material that has been considerably reduced in bulk and can be safely returned to the environment. To be totally effective, it should only use as substrates readily decomposable solid organic waste. In large-scale operations using largely domestic solid organic wastes like straw, animal manures and used for soil improvement, but in more specialized operations using specific organic raw substrates (straw, animal manures, etc.), used as substrate for the worldwide commercial production of the mushroom Agaricus bisporus.

Application in industry

biotechnology have several applications in the productions of various products that used as input. These includes production of enzymes and washing powders.

Enzymes

Enzymes can be produced by commercial fermentation using readily available feed stocks such as corn-steep liquor or molasses. Fungi (Aspergillus) or bacteria (Bacillus) are two of the commonest organisms used to produce the enzymes. These organisms are selected because they are non-pathogenic and do not produce antibiotics. If the enzymes are extracellular then the liquid feedstock is filtered from the organism and the enzyme is extracted. Some commercial uses of enzymes are listed below

• Proteases: In washing powders for dissolving stains from, e.g. egg, milk and blood; removing hair from animal hides; cheese manufacture; tenderising meat.
• Lipases: Flavors enhancer in cheese; in washing powders for removal of fatty stains.
• Pectinases: Clarification of fruit juices; maximizing juice extraction.
• Amylases: Production of glucose from starch

Biological washing powder

Biological washing powder contains enzymes that help break down stains and dirt on clothes more effectively than non-biological powders. These enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and amylases, target protein, fat, and carbohydrate-based stains respectively. This type of detergent works well at lower temperatures and can be especially effective for cleaning tough stains like food, grass, and blood.

Application in agriculture

Biotechnology has revolutionized agriculture by introducing various applications that enhance crop production, improve resistance to pests and diseases, and promote sustainable farming practices. The area of applied agriculture include:-

• Biopesticides
• The use of Ti plasmid as vector
• Insect- resistant crop
• Pest resistant crop
• Transgenic animals
• Transgenic plant
• Herbicide resistant

Biopesticides

There has been a long-term interest in the use of bacteria, fungi, and viruses as bioinsecticides and biopesticides. These are defined as biological agents, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, or their components, which can be used to kill a susceptible insect. Bacteria: Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus popilliae are the two major bacteria of interest. Bacillus thuringiensis is used on a wide variety of vegetable and field crops, fruits, shade trees, and ornamentals

B. popilliae is used primarily against Japanese beetle larvae. Both bacteria are considered harmless to humans. Pseudomonas jluorescens, which contains the toxin-producing gene from B. thuringiensis, is used on maize to suppress black cutworms.
Viruses: Three major virus groups that do not appear to replicate in warm-blooded animals are used. These are: –

• Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV),
• Granulosis virus (GV), and
• Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (CPV) These occluded viruses are more protected in the environment.

Fungi: Over 500 different fungi are associated with insects. Infection and disease occur primarily through the insect cuticle. Four major genera have been used. These are: –

• Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae are used for control of the Colorado potato beetle and the froghopper in sugarcane plantations, respectively.
• Verticillium lecanii and Entomophthora spp. used for the control of aphids in greenhouse and field environments.

The use of Ti palmids as vector

Use of tumour-inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens to introduce glyphosate resistance into soybean crops. One way to introduce transgenes into plants is to use Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Insect-resistant crops

Genetically modified plants protected themselves against insect pests

• Maize is protected against the com borer,
• Cotton is protected against pests such as the boll weevil.
• Insect-resistant tobacco is protected against the tobacco bud worm, but as yet it has not been grown commercially.

The most likely detrimental effects on the environment of growing an insect-resistant crop are

• The evolution of resistance by the insect pests
• Prevent the loss of  other species of insects
• The transfer of the added gene to other species of plant

Pest Resistant crop

Pest attack is one of the very common problems in a number of different crops all around the world, such fodder crops or food crops. e.g. BT-Cotton. The genes of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), are inserted in cotton crop in order for development of certain protein in it. The protein is very toxic to a number of different insects. The developed BT-Cotton leads to a less pest attack ultimately leading to high productive.

Pest resistance

Bacillus thuringiensis, produces a toxin that kills caterpillars and other insect larvae. The gene for the toxin has been successfully introduced into some plant species using a bacterial vector. The plants produce the toxin and show increased resistance to attack by insect larvae

Herbicide resistance

 The common safest and most effective herbicides are called glyphosate, which kill any green plant but have its own effect it reach to the ground. These herbicides cannot be used on crops because they kill the crop plants as well as the weeds. A gene for an enzyme that breaks down glyphosate can be introduced into a plant cell culture & to reduced use of herbicides

Transgenic Plants

 GMOs plant has helped  to create desirable traits, such as disease resistance, herbicide and pesticide resistance, better nutritional    value,   and better shelf life.. Farmers developed ways to select for plant varieties with desirable traits long before modem-day biotechnology practices were established.

Transgenic Animals

Recombinant protein inserted in bacteria and other organisms to produce proteins that need by eukaryotic.. For this reason, the desired genes are cloned and expressed in animals, such as sheep, goats, chickens, and mice. Animals that have been modified to express recombinant DNA are called transgenic animals. Several human proteins are expressed in the milk of transgenic sheep and goats, and some are expressed in the eggs of chickens. Mice have been used extensively for expressing and studying the effects of recombinant genes and mutations.

Cloning

Biological warfare

Biological warfare (BW) also known as germ warfare is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with the intent to kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Biological weapons include any microorganism (such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi) or toxin can be used to kill or injure people. The act of bioterrorism can range from a simple hoax to the actual use of these biological weapons.