In the Middle Ages, feudalism structured European society with powerful lords granting land in exchange for loyalty and service, evolving into serfdom particularly in central and eastern Europe. Manors were self-sufficient centers of feudal economies where peasants, tied to the land, provided labor and goods to lords in return for protection. Feudal society was rigidly hierarchical, with kings and local lords governing through vassalage, while knights played crucial roles in warfare under chivalric codes. Women in noble households managed affairs during men’s absences and occasionally engaged in defense. The Church wielded significant influence, dominating education and politics as Europe became known as Christendom. Urbanization and trade revived with the growth of medieval towns and guilds, fostering economic growth and social mobility. The Crusades, from 1096 to 1270, aimed to secure the Holy Land but ended with limited success, yet profoundly impacted European trade, economy, and cultural exchanges with the East.