Video Lesson

Lesson Objectives

After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• outline the main features of the “Middle Ages” in Western Europe
• explain Eastern Roman empire
• examine the lasting heritages of the Byzantine Empire;

Brainstorming Questions

• Mention the features of the civilization of Western Roman Empire that survived it and passed onto the medieval and modern times Europe.
• How did the Christian church become the main civilizing force of early “Middle Ages” Western Europe?

Key terms and Concepts.

The Fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Dawn of the Middle Ages

The decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire was primarily driven by internal issues that worsened over time, including political instability, economic difficulties, and social unrest. In 395 A.D., the separation of the Western Roman Empire from the more prosperous Eastern Empire further weakened its position. Additionally, the Western Empire faced continuous invasions by Germanic tribes from northern Europe, who migrated southwards and settled along the Roman frontiers. The Romans often referred to these tribes as ‘barbarians’. These external pressures, combined with internal weaknesses, eventually contributed to the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire.

In the 5th century A.D., Germanic tribes, fleeing from Hunnic attacks from central Asia, launched invasions into Roman territory. By this time, the Roman Empire had significantly weakened, unable to effectively defend its extensive borders. The Visigoths invaded Spain around 416 A.D., while the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons began settling in Britain by about 450 A.D. In the 480s A.D., the Franks established a kingdom in Gaul (modern-day France), and concurrently, the Ostrogoths invaded Italy. Rome itself fell to Germanic tribes in 476 A.D., marking a significant event in the decline and ultimate fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The invasions of Germanic tribes divided the huge Roman Empire into many Germanic feudal kingdoms. The strong local governments of the empire disappeared. The invasions also destroyed the trade that the Romans had established. Consequently, the majority of the people moved from towns to the countryside and became peasants. Some towns were completely abandoned and gradually disappeared. Ancient literature, architecture, painting and sculpture declined. However, the Roman Empire passed on to Europe some important things, especially the Latin language and literature and Roman law.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Roman Christian church emerged as the sole surviving institution capable of providing leadership in Western Europe. Popes, bishops, and other church leaders assumed governmental roles as the authority of Roman emperors declined. The church took on responsibilities such as tax collection and maintaining law and order. Church buildings served dual purposes as hospitals for the sick and as accommodations for travelers, demonstrating the church’s central role in social welfare and community support during this period of instability.

The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire

In 330 A.D., Emperor Constantine the Great moved the Roman capital from Rome to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople in his honor. By 395 A.D., the Roman Empire was effectively split into two parts: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople.

The Western Roman Empire final collapse was in 476 A.D., while the Eastern Roman Empire endured for another thousand years. The long life of the Byzantine Empire can be attributed to several factors: it faced fewer direct attacks from Germanic tribes, except in the Balkans; it was wealthier and had a larger population; and its cities were fortified with defensive walls, providing better protection against invaders compared to the more vulnerable Western Empire.

In the Byzantine Empire, the emperor held absolute authority as the sole legislator. Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian I (r. 527-565 A.D.), played a significant role as his advisor and co-ruler, contributing to the empire’s greatness. She occasionally challenged Justinian and pursued her own policies in governance. The Byzantine government exerted control over all aspects of life and maintained considerable influence over church officials. Heavy taxation was imposed on the populace to support the imperial administration.

Under Justinian I’s reign, which marked the empire’s peak, Byzantium expanded significantly. Territories conquered during this time included Italy, parts of Spain, and the Roman province of Africa (modern-day Tunisia) in the west. Prior to Justinian’s reign, the empire had already encompassed Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), the Balkan Peninsula, Egypt, Palestine, and Syria.

The Byzantines preserved and organized Roman laws into the Justinian Code, which became foundational for legal systems in many countries. Emperor Justinian I also commissioned the construction of Hagia Sophia, completed from 532 to 537 A.D., which stood as Constantinople’s grandest Christian church.

The majority of Byzantine Empire’s population consisted of impoverished farmers who cultivated crops like grapes, olives, and wheat, or engaged in sheep herding. In towns and major cities, merchants and artisans thrived in their trades. The empire imported luxurious goods such as silk, spices, and other commodities from China, underscoring its active trade networks and cosmopolitan character.

The Byzantine Empire played a pivotal role in preserving ancient Greek literature, philosophy, and Roman governmental and legal traditions. It elevated Orthodox Christianity to the status of the official state religion, significantly shaping Byzantine art, music, and architecture. Acting as a cultural and ideological bridge between ancient and modern European civilizations, the empire nurtured both Greek cultural heritage and Roman customs. Byzantine missionaries were crucial in spreading Orthodox Christianity across their domain and beyond, successfully converting Slavic peoples such as the Russians. They translated religious texts into Old Slavonic and developed the Cyrillic alphabet for this purpose, which continues to be used in Russia and many Balkan countries today, underscoring Byzantium’s enduring cultural and linguistic influence.

Medieval Christian church: In the 11th century (1054 A.D.), the Christian church underwent a major split into the Western Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, driven by a dispute over church authority. The Eastern Orthodox Church rejected the pope’s authority over both Eastern and Western Christianity and his unilateral control over Christian doctrine, leading to a formal division. Earlier, after Justinian I’s death in 565 A.D., the Byzantine Empire faced attacks from Germanic tribes and Persian invasions. Emperor Heraclius (610-642 A.D.) successfully countered the Persian threat between 624 and 626 A.D., but the empire suffered significant losses to Arab forces in the 7th century A.D., marking a period of territorial decline.

Decline: The decline of the Byzantine Empire began in the 11th century and accelerated through subsequent centuries. In 1071, the Normans seized southern Italy, and the Byzantine army suffered a critical defeat to the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert, leading to the loss of Asia Minor. Turkish expansions into the Holy Land strained Byzantine resources further. Emperor Alexius I Comnenus sought aid from Western Europe against the Turks, sparking the Crusades in 1095. Although the First Crusade (1096-1099) briefly recaptured parts of the Holy Land, Byzantium continued to weaken. By the late 14th century, Constantinople and parts of Greece were the empire’s last holdings. In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, marking the definitive end of the Byzantine Empire. The death of the last Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI, during the city’s defense concluded centuries of Byzantine history and ushered in Ottoman dominance over the region.

Western Europe During the “Middle Ages”

During the Middle Ages, the former Western Roman Empire underwent a period of significant political, social, and economic decline. The region became politically fragmented and isolated from other centers of civilization. It faced successive waves of invasions that disrupted the established trade systems and led to the abandonment of towns. Classical culture suffered severe decline and destruction in this region, leading to what was once termed the “Dark Ages” characterized by warfare and confusion in Europe.

Nowadays, however, historians recognize that this period was not really dark. Instead, it was the period during which Greco-Roman, Germanic and Christian traditions slowly blended, creating what came to be known as medieval civilization, also known as the “Middle Ages” (500-1500 A.D). To mention some of the achievements of the period, Christianity became the religion of the western world, universities were founded, the modern nation states of Europe had their beginnings and the languages of present-day Europe developed.

As Germanic tribes established kingdoms in the former provinces of the Western Roman Empire, they ruled according to tribal customs while also preserving aspects of Roman heritage. One notable kingdom was that of the Franks, which emerged in Gaul (modern-day France) by the late 5th century A.D.

Under the leadership of Charles Martel, the Carolingian dynasty was founded and consolidated power in the 8th century. Charles Martel converted to Christianity, gaining support from Gaulish subjects and forming a strong alliance with the pope of the Roman church. In 732 A.D., he rallied Frankish warriors and decisively defeated Muslim Arab armies from Spain at the Battle of Tours. This victory halted the Arab advance into Western Europe, ensuring that although they retained control over much of Spain, Muslim armies could not expand further northward. Charles Martel’s leadership and the Battle of Tours had a significant impact on shaping the political and cultural landscape of medieval Europe.

Reunification: Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great, briefly reunited much of the former Western Roman Empire during his reign from 768 to 814 A.D. He built an expansive empire that encompassed present-day France, Germany, and parts of Italy. Drawing from Roman administrative practices, Charlemagne established a centralized government that was efficient and effective. Throughout his 46-year reign, Charlemagne engaged in extensive military campaigns. He fought against Muslims in Spain, Saxons in the north, Avars and Slavs in the east, and Lombards in Italy. His military successes expanded the borders and influence of his empire.

In 800 A.D., Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, marking a revival of the Western Roman Empire in a new form. Charlemagne also promoted Latin learning and established local schools to foster education and cultural unity within his realm. Working closely with the church, he played a crucial role in spreading medieval Christian civilization throughout northern Europe. After Charlemagne’s death in 814 A.D., his successors struggled for power, leading to the breakup of the Frankish or Carolingian Empire into three independent kingdoms by 843 A.D. This fragmentation weakened the empire in the face of new waves of invasions.

Muslim forces continued to pose a threat to Christian Europe, maintaining pressure along the southern borders. In 911 A.D., the Normans, originally Viking settlers from Scandinavia, established themselves in what is now Normandy in northern France, eventually extending their influence into southern Italy. Around 900 A.D., the Magyars, originating from Hungary, launched raids into Eastern Europe, plundering regions of Germany, France, and Italy. However, they were eventually pushed back into Hungary, where they settled and established themselves as ruling classes. These invasions and settlements by the Normans and Magyars contributed to the complex political landscape of medieval Europe, shaping regional power dynamics and cultural interactions across the continent.