Video Lesson

Lesson Objectives

After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• identify the contributions of Islamic civilization to the world;
• examine the ways through which the Ottoman Turks became super power of the world;
• understand the rise and decline of Turkish empire

Brainstorming Questions

• What type of oral traditions have you ever heard about the rise of Islamic religion? About Sunni and Shi`ia Islam?
• Why do Muslims consider Mecca sacred?

Key terms and Concepts

The Rise and Expansion of Islam

Islam is a monotheistic religion founded in Arabia by Muhammad in the 7th century AD. Muhammad, born around 570 AD in Mecca, taught that there is only one God, Allah, and that he was Allah’s messenger. The word “Islam” means submission to Allah’s will in Arabic, and followers of Islam are called Muslims. Islam encompasses both religious beliefs and a way of life. Muslims consider the Quran, believed to be the word of Allah revealed to Muhammad, as their holy scripture.

Muhammad began preaching in Mecca around 610 AD, gathering a small community of followers. His teachings posed a threat to the Quraysh Arabs and wealthy Meccan merchants who feared losing their religious and economic influence, particularly during the annual pilgrimage to the Ka`aba. As a result, Muhammad and his followers faced persecution and attempts on his life. In 622 AD, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Yathrib, later named Medina, in an event known as the Hijra (retreat). This migration marks the start of the Islamic calendar, with 622 AD as year one.

After migrating to Medina in 622 AD, Muhammad’s followers became known as the Ansars (Helpers) from Medina and the Muhajirun (Emigrants) who joined him. Together, they formed the Sahaba (companions of the Prophet) and established the Umma (Muslim community). Muhammad instituted rules that governed and unified Muslims.

In 630 AD, after battles with the Quraysh and their allies, Muhammad triumphantly entered Mecca. He reconsecrated the Ka`aba to Allah, establishing it as Islam’s holiest site. Over the next two years, Muhammad worked to unite the Arabs under Islam, employing diplomacy and warfare to extend his influence across much of Arabia. Muhammad passed away in 632 AD, but the faith he preached continued to spread rapidly.

After the Prophet Muhammad’s death, his immediate successors were known as caliphs. The first four caliphs were Abu Bakr (632-634 AD), Umar (634-644 AD), ‘Uthman (644-656 AD), and Ali (656-661 AD), all of whom had familial ties to Muhammad through marriage. When ‘Uthman, the third caliph, was assassinated by dissatisfied Muslims over disagreements with his policies, Ali was elected as the caliph in Medina. However, his legitimacy was challenged by some of Muhammad’s companions, notably Muawiyah, the governor of Syria. This disagreement led to a civil war between Ali’s supporters and those of Muawiyah. Ali agreed to settle the dispute through arbitration, but a faction of his followers, known as the Kharijites (those who withdrew), rejected the idea and revolted against both Ali and Muawiyah. Eventually, Ali was assassinated in 661 AD by members of the Kharijites who opposed his decision to seek arbitration.

This period marked a significant schism in early Islamic history, with the emergence of Sunni and Shia branches of Islam, partly rooted in the disputes over leadership and succession following Muhammad’s death. After Prophet Muhammad’s death, Muslims disagreed over leadership. Shi`ites believed Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, was designated by Muhammad as his successor, following the concept of Imamate where an infallible Imam leads by divine guidance. Sunnis believed any pious male Muslim from Muhammad’s tribe could lead, accepting the title of caliph without divine authority, following the Sunna of Muhammad.

Sunnis eventually prevailed in asserting leadership through consensus and caliphs, rather than hereditary Imamate. This division between Sunnis and Shi`ites has shaped Islamic history, influencing religious and political dynamics.

Like the split between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians, the division between Sunni and Shi`ite Muslims has survived to the present day, with profound impact on later Islamic history. Today, Sunnis or Sunnites comprise 90% of the world`s total Muslim population. Most Shi`ite live in Iran, Lebanon, Iraq and Yemen. The major doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi`ite Islam are the followings: the sources of Sunnite law are the Quran, the Hadith, the consensus of the community and analogy. The four bases of the Shi`ite law are the Quran, the Hadith of the Prophet and of the Imams, the consensus of the Imams, and reason. Besides, Sunni Islam accepts the belief in the coming of the Mahdi (the rightly guided one) who restores justice. Through the centuries Mahdis appeared in various
countries from time to time.

The Kharijites emerged as a religious sect and staged revolts against the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs in Iraq, Arabia, and Iran during the 7th and 8th centuries. They believed that the leader of the Muslim community could be anyone, including a black slave, as long as they possessed piety, integrity, and religious knowledge. The Kharijites also considered serious sinners as unbelievers and apostates who deserved death.

Despite their ideological fervor, the Kharijites failed to gain widespread support among Muslims due to their intolerance towards other Muslim groups. As a result, they remained a minority in the eastern regions of the caliphate. In North Africa (Maghrib), however, the Kharijites found considerable followers among the Berbers who were discontented with the oppressive rule of the Umayyads.

Islamic law, governed by Sharia, profoundly influences the daily lives of Muslims worldwide, encompassing ethical conduct, family relationships, and various legal situations based on interpretations of the Quran, teachings of Muhammad, and Muslim traditions. Developed by scholars, Sharia regulates every aspect of individual and community life, promoting spiritual equality among Muslims and emphasizing education for both men and women to study the Quran. By the 8th and 9th centuries, diverse interpretations within Sunni and Shi’a Islam led to the establishment of multiple fiqh (schools of thought). Prominent Sunni schools include the Hanafi, dominant in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Central Asia, and northern India/Pakistan; the Maliki in North Africa, Muslim Spain historically, and parts of Sudan; the Shafi along the Indian Ocean to Indonesia; and the Hanbali, predominant in Saudi Arabia. In Shi’a Islam, significant schools include the Zaydi in Yemen and the Ja`fari (Twelver Shi`a) in Iran and globally among Shi’a communities, highlighting the diversity and regional influence of Islamic legal traditions. In Ethiopia, the Shafi and Hanafi Schools of Islamic law are dominant

The Rise of Islamic Empire

Under the leadership of the first four caliphs, Muslim Arabs launched a series of strategic military campaigns aimed at expanding their influence and securing economic and political gains. Between 634 and 636 AD, Arab forces achieved significant victories over the Byzantine Empire, capturing key territories including Syria, Palestine, and Jerusalem. Subsequently, from 639 to 642 AD, they successfully occupied Byzantine Egypt. The pivotal Battle of Qadisiyya in 637 AD enabled the Arabs to conquer the fertile lands of Iraq, where military bases in Basra and Kufa were established to further their control into the Iranian highlands. The Persian Empire suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Nihawand in 642 AD, marking a turning point as Muslim Arabs expanded their sphere of influence to include regions extending from India to northern Iraq and Armenia in central Asia by 650 AD.

The rapid expansion of Muslim Arab armies during the 7th century was facilitated by the weakened state of the Byzantine and Persian empires, which had been exhausted by prolonged wars and internal strife. The Byzantines faced discontent due to harsh taxation, while religious differences fueled resentment among the Christian population in Iran towards the Persian ruling class. Internal dynastic conflicts further weakened Persia before Arab conquests. The unity fostered by Islam among its followers and the desire to spread and glorify the new religion motivated Muslim armies to achieve victory.

Following the assassination of Ali in 661 AD, Muawiya established the Umayyad Caliphate, shifting its capital from Medina to Damascus in Syria. Under the Umayyad caliphs (661-750 AD), Arab forces continued their expansion: they clashed with Turkish tribes in Central Asia, conducted an expedition into Sindh, India, and reached China’s borders. Umayyad armies also seized Sicily and completed the conquest of North Africa. In 711 AD, they launched a successful invasion of Spain, marking a significant extension of Arab influence into Europe.

Within a century after the death of Prophet Muhammad, Muslim Arabs under the early Umayyad caliphs rapidly expanded their empire, encompassing vast territories and incorporating diverse non-Arab peoples. While imposing special taxes on non-Muslims to support Arab troops, they allowed Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians to practice their faiths. Governance relied on local officials, including non-Muslims, who held key administrative roles. The Umayyad dynasty eventually gave way to the Abbasids, who ushered in a golden age of Islamic civilization. Under the Abbasids, discrimination against non-Arab Muslims ceased, and Arabic became the language of state, fostering cultural and intellectual flourishing. By 920 AD, however, internal strife and external pressures, including the rise of the Seljuk Turks and the Mongol invasion, led to the decline of the Abbasid caliphate. In 1258, Baghdad fell to the Mongols, marking the end of the Abbasid era and the onset of a period of fragmentation and decline in Islamic governance and culture.

Legacy of Muslim Civilization

During its “golden age” from 800 to 1200 AD, Islamic civilization thrived by embracing diverse cultural traditions and fostering creativity. Drawing from Greek, Persian, and Hindu influences, Muslims from various backgrounds including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Turks, Egyptians, Berbers, and Spaniards contributed to its development. At the same time, Islamic civilization maintained its unique character with contributions in Arabic grammar, law, and theology. Merchants held high esteem, establishing extensive trade networks across and beyond the Muslim empire from 750 to 1350. They facilitated the spread of goods, technologies, knowledge, and culture, enhancing the money economy. Agriculture was a significant focus, with Umayyad and Abbasid rulers initiating large-scale irrigation projects to preserve and expand agricultural lands. Muslim scholars wrote extensively on soil improvement and crop cultivation, fostering the growth of food staples like dates and grains, alongside cash crops such as sugar cane, cotton, and medicinal herbs. Economic ties remained strong between settled farmers and nomadic communities, with mutual exchanges of food items, livestock, and other resources sustaining both groups.

During the Islamic “golden age” from the 8th to the 13th centuries, remarkable advancements were made across various fields of knowledge. Education was widespread, with both boys and girls receiving elementary schooling focused on reading and writing to study the Quran. Centers of higher learning in cities like Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, and Timbuktu flourished, where scholars translated and preserved ancient texts from Persian, Sanskrit, and Greek into Arabic. Inspired by Greek philosophy and other traditions; Muslim scholars such as Ibn Rushd in Cordoba scrutinized all knowledge through reason, except for the Quran.

Muslim scholars during the medieval period made profound contributions across various fields, significantly influencing mathematics, medicine, astronomy, geography, history, and architecture. In mathematics, they advanced algebra, trigonometry, and geometry, introducing Arabic numerals and decimal fractions to Europe and applying these innovations in astronomy and commerce. In medicine, scholars like Hunayn ibn Ishaq and Muhammad al-Razi built upon Greek knowledge, advancing medical treatments and establishing hospital systems. Ibn Sina’s “Canon on Medicine” became a definitive medical textbook in Europe for centuries. Astronomically, Muslim scientists used astrolabes and early telescopes to study celestial movements, recognizing the earth’s roundness and its orbit around the sun well before Copernicus and Galileo. Geographically and historically, Arab scholars documented distant lands and events, contributing to structured historical analysis methods, exemplified by Ibn Khaldun. Architecturally, Muslims adapted Byzantine designs to create iconic structures like domed mosques and elaborate calligraphy, leaving a lasting imprint on public buildings and manuscripts with their distinctive artistic style.

The Expansion of The Ottoman Turkish Empire

The Seljuk Turks began to decline in the 1140s and collapsed by the end of the century. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire in Central Asia, initiating expansive conquests in all directions. By the late 13th century, the Mongols had supplanted the former Seljuk Empire across its territories.

The Ottomans, originally Turkish-speaking pastoralists from central Asia, converted to Sunni Islam in the 10th century. Beginning with Osman I (r. 1299-1324), they established the Ottoman Turkish state and dynasty. From 1280 onward, the Ottomans expanded into Asia Minor and the Balkans, posing a threat to the declining Byzantine Empire. Their adoption of advanced military technology like cannons and muskets played a pivotal role in their victories over Byzantine forces, culminating in the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Sultan Mehmet II. He renamed the city Istanbul and made it the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Over the next 200 years, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, annexing territories such as Iraq, Syria, Palestine, the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Cyprus, Crete, southern Ukraine, Poland, most of Hungary, and more. By the reign of Sultan Suleiman I (r. 1520-1566), often known as “the Magnificent” in Europe and “the Lawgiver” among his people, the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith as the foremost Muslim state in the world.

The Ottoman Empire ruled over diverse populations with varying religions. Society was stratified into different classes: at the top were Muslims, including soldiers and officials; below them were merchants, tax collectors, and artisans; at the bottom were farmers and herders, many of whom were non-Muslims. Each religious community, organized into millets, managed its own affairs, including education and certain legal matters. The Ottoman administrative system, centered around the Sultan as an absolute autocrat, operated effectively with the guidance of Sharia law as interpreted by Muslim clerics and the Ulema. Below the Sultan, the grand vizier, sometimes also commanding the army, played a crucial role, especially during periods of weaker Sultans like those following Suleiman I, in maintaining the empire’s coherence and stability.

The Ottoman Empire maintained a large and efficient army, highlighted by its elite infantry unit known as the Janissaries. These soldiers were recruited from Christian children in the Balkans, converted to Islam, and rigorously trained in military skills at palace schools. Known for their discipline, courage, and effectiveness in battle, the Janissaries were armed with muskets and cannons, representing a formidable force created by the Ottomans in the early 15th century. Additionally, the Ottoman army included the Sipahi Turkish cavalry, composed of holders of timars (fiefs) granted by the Sultan in Asia Minor and Europe. These cavalrymen were essential for Ottoman military operations, equipped through resources obtained from their timars, which eventually became hereditary, resembling medieval European feudalism.

Throughout its history, the expansive Ottoman Empire posed a significant threat to European states due to its powerful military and navy. However, after the death of Sultan Suleiman I in 1566, the empire began to experience gradual economic and military decline. By the 17th century, this decline made the Ottomans less formidable, especially in comparison to advancing European states like Austria and Russia, which aggressively captured Ottoman territories and surpassed them in both commerce and military technology during the 18th century.