Islam originated in 7th century Arabia with Muhammad as its prophet, emphasizing monotheism and submission to Allah. Initially facing persecution in Mecca, Muhammad’s migration to Medina marked a turning point, leading to the establishment of a Muslim community (Umma). Following Muhammad’s death, leadership disputes emerged, dividing Muslims into Sunni and Shia branches over succession issues. The rapid expansion of Islam under the early caliphs saw conquests extending from Spain to Central Asia by the 8th century, driven by military campaigns and Islamic unity. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates later facilitated cultural flourishing, scientific advancements, and trade across a vast empire. However, internal conflicts and external pressures contributed to the eventual decline of these caliphates, marking a pivotal shift in Islamic governance and influence.

The Ottoman Empire, established in the late 13th century, rose to prominence through military conquests and strategic governance. Under Suleiman the Magnificent, it reached its zenith, dominating territories from Eastern Europe to North Africa and the Middle East. Ottoman society was structured around Islamic law, with a diverse populace organized into millets managing their religious affairs. Despite initial military prowess, the empire faced economic and military challenges in the 17th century, leading to a gradual decline against European powers. By the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire dissolved, marking the end of a significant era in Islamic history while influencing cultural, political, and military developments in Europe and the Middle East.