Video Lesson

Lesson Objectives

After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• explain about the exploits of the Aksumite kingdom;
• trace the cultural ties of Aksum with the outside world;
• describe about the economic basis of the Aksumite kingdom;
• appreciate the literary and architectural achievements of the Aksumite civilization.

Brainstorming Questions

• What evidence can you provide about Aksum’s maritime activities in the Red Sea and beyond?
• What place was Adulis? How do you relate it with the economy of Aksum?

Key terms and concepts

The Aksumite Kingdom

Early civilization: The Aksumite state emerged around 200-100 B.C. with its nucleus in the town of Aksum and nearby areas. At its peak, the Aksumite territory stretched from the Red Sea coast in the East to the western edge of the Ethiopian plateau, which overlooks the Nile Valley. It encompassed vast regions from the northernmost part of Eritrea to possibly as far south as the northern areas of Shewa. This expansion marked the zenith of Aksumite power, highlighting its substantial territorial reach and strategic importance in the region.

Trade: According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Adulis served as the primary port of the Aksumite state on the western Red Sea coast. Trade routes extended inland from Adulis through key centers such as Kaskasse, Coloe, and Maţara, continuing westward across the Tekeze River. Other significant ports mentioned in the document included Aden (Eudaemon), Avalites (Zeila), and Malao (Berbera) along the Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts, such as Serapion (Mogadishu), Nicon (Brava), and Merca. These ports were pivotal nodes in the extensive trade networks linking Aksum with regions across the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.

Aksum exported natural products like ivory, myrrh, emeralds, frankincense, and spices such as ginger, cassia, and cinnamon. They also traded in gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells, and apes. Imports included garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia, as well as glassware, jewelry, metallic sheets, tools, utensils, oil, and wine from the Roman Empire and Syria. King Zoscales (c. 76-89 A.D.) of Aksum was known for his proficiency in Greek, reflecting the state’s connections with the Greco-Roman world. Additionally, Aksum maintained diplomatic relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea in Asia Minor (Turkey). However, such interactions occasionally led to conflicts, such as a notable recorded conflict around 200 A.D. when the Aksumite king Gadarat’s army clashed with peoples in present-day Yemen.

The Adulis inscription recorded in Greek and found in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ work “Christian Topography,” details commercial activities in the Red Sea region. It mentions long-distance trade between Aksum and Sasu, likely in Beni Shangul and nearby areas beyond the Blue Nile. A large caravan, including around five hundred merchants, traded cattle, salt blocks, and iron for gold with Sasu. Despite language barriers and mutual distrust, they conducted trade through gestures and signs without seeing each other, illustrating a form of silent trade.

King Kaleb, reigning from 500 to 535 A.D., expanded Aksum’s overseas territories beyond Himyar and Saba. However, local prince Dhu-Nuwas, who converted to Judaism, led an attack on Zafar and Nagran, killing many Christians. With support from the Byzantine fleet sent by Justinian (r. 527-565), Kaleb defeated Dhu-Nuwas and appointed Abreha as governor until 570 A.D. Kaleb’s son Gebre Mesqel (535-548 A.D.) succeeded him and built the church of Zur Amba Aregawin Gayint. During Gebre Mesqel’s reign, Yared developed liturgical songs and hymns for the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

Coin minting: From the 3rd to 7th centuries, Aksumite kings minted and issued coins made of gold, silver, and bronze for both local and international trade. Aksum was considered one of the world’s four great powers alongside Rome, Persia, and China during this period. It was a significant naval and trading power, developing shipbuilding technology at Adulis and maintaining a large fleet used for both commerce and military purposes across the Red Sea.

The Aksumites were pioneers in coin minting and achieved notable architectural feats. Their legacy includes impressive steles that still stand or lie in ruins, showcasing three types: well-made and decorated, half-completed, and megaliths. Local tradition holds that these steles were engraved at Gobodara before being transported and erected in Aksum. The tallest among them measures 33 meters and is intricately decorated on all sides, resembling a 14-storied building with false windows and a door at the base. It also features pre-Christian symbols like a disc and crescent at the top.

Writing system: The Sabean language made a significant contribution to the art of writing, characterized by an alphabet with reversed letters used alternately from left to right and right to left. Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date back to the 9th century B.C., notable for their absence of vowels, such as Da’mat represented as D’mt. Over time, variants of this script emerged, evolving towards the Geez script, evident in inscriptions found on rocks and caves from the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. By the 1st century A.D., the Geez alphabet was fully developed, comprising 26 consonant letters written left-to-right, similar to the modern vocalized alphabet’s first-order forms. This ancient Ethiopian writing system has profoundly influenced literature, art, and historical documentation. Numerals also emerged in Ethiopia around the early 4th century A.D., with Ge’ez using a numeral system akin to Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek numerals. In proper typesetting, numbers are distinguished by bars placed above and below each character.

During this period, the Aksumites invented a calendar featuring 12 months, each with 30 days, supplemented by an additional 5 or 6 days every four years. This system created a gap of 7 to 8 years between the Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars, making the first day of the year, first Meskerem (Enqutatash), typically fall on September 11 in the Gregorian calendar. The Ethiopic solar calendar eventually became the official calendar of the country.

Decline: The Aksumite state began to decline from the late 7th century due to internal and external challenges. Factors such as environmental degradation, reduced agricultural output, and likely outbreaks of plague weakened the state. The destruction of the port of Adulis by Arabs around 702 severed its economic lifeline, leading to the control of Aksumite trade routes by expanding Arab Muslim powers. This isolation caused economic decline, which in turn diminished political and military influence both on the Red Sea coast and within its interior provinces.

Rebellions by groups like the Beja, Agaw, and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Aksumite state. Despite its fall, Aksum’s civilization left a lasting impact on the peoples of the Horn of Africa and beyond.