Video Lesson

Lesson Objectives

After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• describe the political, economic and cultural achievements of the Tand and Song dynasties in China.

Brainstorming Questions

• What is the dynastic cycle?
• What was the Mandate of Heaven? What were the symptoms for the loss of the
  mandate of heaven by a Chinese Dynasty?

Key terms and Concepts

The Chinese dynastic cycle, governed by the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, shaped the rise and fall of dynasties throughout China’s ancient history. According to this belief, heaven granted each monarch the right to rule, but corruption and natural disasters signified the loss of this mandate, leading to the dynasty’s downfall. Subsequently, a new ruler would emerge, establish a new dynasty, and reclaim the Mandate of Heaven, perpetuating the cycle. This cycle persisted from ancient times until the Ming Dynasty’s end in 1644 and continued to influence Chinese imperial rule until 1912.

The Sui dynasty, ruling from 581 to 618 AD, unified China after centuries of division with the “Mandate of Heaven.” By 605 AD, they reconstructed the Grand Canal, connecting the Yangtze River in the south to the Yellow River in the north. This canal facilitated the transport of southern grain and goods, crucial for supporting the political and military requirements of the unified empire.

The Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) governed China for nearly 300 years, characterized by prosperity and significant cultural achievements. Founded by Emperor Li Yuan (r. 618-626 AD), the dynasty expanded its territory into central Asia. Chang’an (modern-day Xi’an), the Tang capital, became the world’s largest city and a hub for diplomats, traders, scholars, and poets from Asia and the Mediterranean. Renowned poets such as Li Bai (701-762 AD) and Du Fu (712-770 AD) flourished during this era. Buddhism exerted a profound cultural influence, though it adapted to Chinese customs. By the 9th century AD, there was a revival of Confucianism.

During the Tang Dynasty, emperors strengthened the government by reinstating the Han system of uniform administration across China. They expanded the civil service system to recruit officials based on merit, promoted education, and boosted government revenue by redistributing land to peasants. Empress Wu Zhao (r. 690-705 AD) notably declared herself “Son of Heaven,” a unique position for a woman in Chinese history. However, the dynasty began to weaken due to rebellions in 755 and 875-884, territorial losses to the Arabs in central Asia, corruption, droughts, and famines. The Tang Dynasty ended in 907 AD after a rebellion, leading to a chaotic period with five successive dynasties vying for control.

The Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) marked a significant era of reunification and cultural advancement in China. Under their rule, the civil service system, originally established by the Tang Dynasty, was fully implemented. Neo-Confucianism became the dominant state philosophy, influencing governance and societal values. Economic prosperity flourished due to advancements in agriculture and a progressive trade policy that facilitated increased commercial activities. The Song period also witnessed vibrant foreign trade with merchants from India, Persia, and Arabia, alongside Chinese traders venturing into Southeast Asia for spices and exotic woods. Notable Chinese inventions like gunpowder, the magnetic compass, and movable type printing further characterized the period as a time of innovation and cultural flourishing in art, philosophy, and literature.

The Song dynasty faced persistent threats from northern nomadic tribes, leading to the loss of northern China to Manchurian invaders in 1126. They relocated their capital to Hangzhou, forming the Southern Song dynasty. By the early 13th century, Mongol forces steadily conquered northern China, culminating in complete control of the Chinese Empire by March 1279, marking the end of organized resistance in Chinese history. Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) with Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing) as its capital, ruling over China, Tibet, and Korea. Mongols held top administrative positions while Chinese officials filled lower roles. Kublai Khan hosted foreigners like Marco Polo, whose detailed account of China’s wealth and civilization, referred to as Cathay, fascinated Europe upon his return in 1292. Trade flourished under Mongol protection, facilitating the exchange of Chinese goods like gunpowder, porcelain, paper, and playing cards across Eurasia.

After Kublai Khan’s death in 1294, the Yuan Dynasty began to decline due to heavy taxation, corruption, natural disasters, and widespread uprisings fueled by Chinese resentment towards Mongol rule. In 1368, these rebellions successfully drove the Mongols out of China. Following this upheaval, the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) emerged, claiming the “Mandate of Heaven.” Initially ruling from Nanjing and later Beijing, the Ming period ushered in stability and prosperity marked by a revival in literature and art. The Ming restored the civil service system and Confucian learning, which had suffered during the preceding Yuan Dynasty. Early Ming rulers also launched ambitious naval expeditions into Southeast Asia, India, the Red Sea, and East Africa aimed at fostering trade and gathering tribute.

In 1644, the Manchu people from Manchuria invaded and established the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) in China, effectively unifying Manchuria with the rest of China. Initially facing resistance due to their status as perceived “barbarians” by the Chinese, the Manchu rulers eventually gained acceptance from Chinese landlords and the educated class by demonstrating strength in suppressing peasant uprisings and promoting Chinese culture. The Qing administration largely continued existing Chinese governance practices, enhancing administrative efficiency. Despite initial stability and prosperity, the Qing Dynasty began to decline from the mid-19th century onwards due to internal peasant revolts and external pressure from Western powers. Nonetheless, the Qing Dynasty persisted as the ruling power in China until its collapse in 1912.