Summary

The period from the 16th to the 18th centuries saw profound transformations across science, medicine, and intellectual thought. Scientific revolutions, from Copernicus’s heliocentric theory to Newton’s laws of motion and universal gravitation, reshaped understanding of the universe and natural laws. Advancements in technology, like microscopes and thermometers, enabled precise observation and measurement, fostering deeper insights in various fields. Concurrently, figures like Andreas Vesalius revolutionized anatomical study, Edward Jenner pioneered vaccination, and Robert Boyle laid the groundwork for modern chemistry with Boyle’s law. These scientific achievements set the stage for the Enlightenment, a period marked by philosophical and societal upheaval in Europe. Enlightenment thinkers, or philosophes, championed reason, liberty, and progress, challenging traditional beliefs about governance, religion, and human rights. Figures such as John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot were central to this intellectual movement, which emphasized critical thinking and the potential for human improvement, shaping the foundations of modern Western thought and society.