Video Lesson

Lesson Objectives

After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• relate the ideals of the Reformation to today`s world thinking;
• examine the significance of the Reformation for the development of early capitalism;
• appreciate the achievements of the Reformation.

Brainstorming Questions

• What is your previous information about Marthin Luther?
• What is your understanding about Protestantism?

Key terms and concepts:

The Reformation

The Reformation, beginning in 1517, was a religious revolt against the Roman Catholic Church sparked by several key factors. Influenced by the Renaissance spirit of inquiry, people began to challenge the Pope’s authority due to widespread corruption within the Church. Opposition also arose against church taxes and exemptions. Educated individuals, inspired by Renaissance ideas, questioned church authority on matters such as astronomy, history, and Bible interpretation. Criticism of worldly practices and nepotism among church leaders further fueled discontent. Figures like Erasmus (1466-1536) in Holland and Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) in England sought reform within the Catholic Church, although their efforts were met with slow response from Church authorities.

In 1517, protests against Catholic Church abuses escalated into a significant revolt led by the German theologian Martin Luther (1483-1546).

Luther, originally trained and belonging to a Catholic monastic order, later became a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg. He vehemently opposed the Catholic Church’s practice of selling indulgences, which allowed people to buy pardons for their sins without genuine repentance.

In 1517, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses on the church door in Wittenberg, outlining his religious beliefs and sparking widespread public support. Luther rejected the Pope’s authority, asserting that the Bible alone held ultimate authority. He criticized various Catholic practices and introduced the doctrine of justification by faith, which emphasized salvation through faith in God alone. In 1521, Luther was excommunicated by the Pope and faced opposition from Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1556) of the Holy Roman Empire. In response, Luther established the Lutheran Church, translated the New Testament into German, and wrote pamphlets to promote his ideas, advocating for individual reading and interpretation of the Bible.

The Protestant reformers, adopting Lutheranism, found support among many German princes who protected Luther and saw an opportunity to seize Church lands and close monasteries. During the German Peasants’ Rebellion of 1524-1525, Luther aligned himself with the princes, despite his earlier criticisms of the Pope, demonstrating his support for secular authority.

Lutheranism spread to Scandinavian countries like Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, becoming their official state religion by the late 16th century. Concurrently, other reformers, such as John Calvin (1509-1564), in Geneva, promoted Calvinism, which emphasized predestination—the belief that only those chosen by God would attain salvation. Calvinists advocated for diligence and a rigorous moral framework, further influencing Protestant movements across Europe.

Calvinism spread widely, leading to the formation of the Swiss Reformist Church in Switzerland and the Dutch Reformed Church in the Netherlands. In England, King Henry VIII’s (r.1509-1547), “Act of Supremacy” in 1534 established the independent Anglican Church with the monarch as its head, marking the beginning of Anglicanism. Subsequently, Queen Elizabeth I promoted a moderate form of Protestantism known as Anglicanism during her reign from 1558 to 1603. However, English Puritans, followers of Calvinism, opposed Anglicanism due to its episcopal structure and advocated for Presbyterian-style church governance. Consequently, Catholicism was officially proscribed in England.

In Scotland, Calvinism was introduced by John Knox (1505-1572) and became the official state religion in 1560, known as the Presbyterian Church. In Northern Ireland, Protestants, often referred to as Ulster, settled and tensions arose between Catholics and Protestants. In France, Calvinism gained prominence among a influential minority known as Huguenots.

The Catholic Church`s Counter Reformation

As Protestantism spread across Europe, the Catholic Church responded with reforms known as the Counter Reformation. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) redefined Catholic beliefs, abolished indulgences, and banned Protestant books to counter Protestant influence.

The Inquisition was established to suppress heresy through trials, often involving torture. Concurrently, the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) in 1534, aimed to defend and spread Catholicism globally. Jesuit missionaries played a key role in expanding Catholicism, alongside other orders like the Dominicans and Franciscans, who worked in Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

The Historical Significance of the Reformation

As a result of the 16th-century religious Reformation, Europe was divided into Catholic territories in the south and Protestant regions in the north. Southern countries like France, Italy, Spain, and parts of Germany remained Catholic, while Northern Germany, Holland, and Scandinavian nations embraced Protestantism. In England, Henry VIII’s break with the Catholic Church in 1534 over his divorce dispute led to the establishment of the Church of England with the monarch as its head. This division sparked wars between Catholics and Protestants that lasted more than a century. Led by the Pope and supported by the Holy Roman Emperor, Catholics countered the spread of Protestantism and regained some territories. Both Catholic and Protestant rulers enforced religious conformity through persecution, including against minorities like Jews. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), marked by religious conflicts and power struggles among European nations, resulted in significant casualties, with about one-third of the German population perishing.

The Reformation significantly shifted the balance of power towards secular rulers in both Protestant and Catholic countries. In Protestant nations, allegiance shifted away from the Pope towards the secular ruler as the highest authority. This strengthened their political control, as seen in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, who maintained a moderate Protestant stance and defended her realm against Catholic Spain, earning the loyalty of her subjects.

Artistic expression also evolved differently in Catholic and Protestant regions. Catholic art continued to focus on religious themes, glorifying figures like Jesus, Mary, and the Saints. In contrast, Protestant artists avoided depictions of God and instead specialized in landscapes and still-life scenes that celebrated the natural world as a reflection of God’s creation.

The weakening of Papal authority had economic implications, particularly in Northern Europe where the Church no longer collected taxes. Although religious wars caused widespread destruction, they also stimulated economies by creating demand for new goods and services. Protestant attitudes towards frugality and responsible use of resources may have additionally contributed to the growth of industry and commerce across Western Europe and beyond during the 18^th and 19^th centuries.