Video Lesson

Lesson Objectives

After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• Mention some of the impacts of the Scientific Revolution.
• Analyze the reasons for the beginning of Protestant revolt in Europe

Brainstorming Questions

Have you ever heard about enlightenment?

Key terms and Concepts

Scientific Revolution

The term ‘scientific revolution’ refers to a period stretching roughly from 1500 to 1700.This was the period when what we call modern science began to take shape. The Scientific Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural world based up on careful observation, experimentation and scientific reasoning to gather knowledge and draw conclusions about the physical world. Improvements in technology began to undermine many long held theories.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, significant challenges to established scientific beliefs emerged in astronomy. Nicholas Copernicus, a Polish cleric and astronomer, proposed the heliocentric theory in 1543, which suggested that the sun, rather than the Earth, was the center of the universe, with planets, including Earth, orbiting around it. This theory contradicted the prevailing geocentric model proposed by Ptolemy.

Despite Copernicus’s groundbreaking theory, his work faced opposition, particularly from the Catholic Church, which banned his ideas. In 1610, Galileo Galilei, an Italian astronomer, using an improved telescope, made further discoveries that supported Copernicus’s heliocentric theory. Galileo observed moons orbiting Jupiter, demonstrating that not all celestial bodies revolved around Earth.

However, Galileo’s findings challenged religious doctrines upheld by both the Catholic and Protestant churches, leading to his trial by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633. Found guilty of heresy for supporting Copernican heliocentrism, Galileo was placed under house arrest, a punishment that restricted his scientific activities but did not completely silence his influence.

Later, the great English scientist Isaac Newton formulated a single theory of motion. Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. He was 26 years old when he discovered that the same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in space. This was his law of universal gravitation. According to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them

During the 17th and 18th centuries, careful observation and the scientific method gained prominence across diverse fields, driven by the development of precise scientific instruments. Zacharias Janssen, a Dutch maker of eyeglasses, invented the microscope in 1590, which Anton van Leeuwenhoek later used in the 1670s to examine red blood cells for the first time. In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli, a student of Galileo, created the first mercury barometer to measure atmospheric pressure and predict weather. Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German physicist, introduced the mercury-in-glass thermometer in 1714, showing water freezing at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, while Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, established another scale in 1742 with water freezing at 0 degrees Celsius. These innovations revolutionized scientific observation and measurement, paving the way for deeper understanding and new discoveries across scientific disciplines.

In medicine and chemistry, notable advances occurred across the 16th to 18th centuries. Andreas Vesalius, a Flemish physician, revolutionized anatomical understanding with his 1543 work “On the Structure of the Human Body,” featuring detailed illustrations of human organs, bones, and muscles derived from meticulous dissections of human corpses.

British physician Edward Jenner made a significant breakthrough in the late 1700s by developing the first smallpox vaccine, using cowpox to initiate immunity, marking a milestone in medical history.

Robert Boyle, recognized as the father of modern chemistry, pioneered the application of the scientific method in chemistry. His proposal that matter consists of small primary particles that combine differently laid foundational groundwork. Boyle’s most renowned contribution, Boyle’s law, elucidated the relationships between gas volume, temperature, and pressure, shaping the understanding of gas behavior. These advancements laid the groundwork for further discoveries and developments in both fields.

The Enlightenment

The scientific breakthroughs of the era catalyzed a broader intellectual reevaluation across Europe and colonial North America. This period, known as the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason, emerged as philosophers and scholars questioned traditional beliefs about government, religion, economics, and education. Emphasizing reason, critical thinking, and the ability of individuals to address societal challenges, the Enlightenment peaked in the mid-1700s.

This intellectual movement profoundly influenced Western civilization, promoting ideals of liberty, equality, and progress. It encouraged a shift towards more democratic forms of governance, secularism in thought, and advancements in fields such as literature, philosophy, and social sciences. The Enlightenment era marked a pivotal moment in history where rational inquiry and human rights became central to shaping modern societies and their institutions.

In 18th century France, the Enlightenment flourished, establishing the country as the intellectual and cultural hub of Europe. Central to this period were the “philosophes,” social critics who were not only philosophers but also journalists and propagandists. They championed reason as the cornerstone of truth, drawing parallels to Isaac Newton’s application of reason in science.

France was the center of this 18th century intellectual movement because France had become
the the intellectual and cultural center of Europe. The social critics of this period in France were
known as philosophes, the French word for philosophers. They were journalists and propogandists as much as true philosophers. The philosophes believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life, just as Isaac Newton had applied reason to science. Five concepts formed the core of their beliefs:

1. Reason — Enlightened thinkers believed truth could be discovered through reason or
logical thinking.

2. Nature — The philosophes believed that what was natural was good and reasonable.
3. Happiness — The philosophes rejected the medieval notion that people should find joy in the hereafter and urged people to seek well-being on earth.

4. Progress — The philosophes stressed that society and humankind could improve.
5. Liberty — The philosophes called for the liberties that the English people had won in
their Glorious Revolution (1688) and Bill of Rights (1689).

Perhaps the most influential figure of the Enlightenment was John Locke (1632-1704), an
English philosopher. Charles de Montesquieu (1689-1755), Denis Diderot (1717-1784),
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) and Francois Marie Arouet, in his pen name Voltaire
(1694-1778) were some of the philosophers of France.

Thinker	Idea	Impact
Locke	Natural rights– life, liberty, property	Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence
Montesquieu	Separation of powers	France, United States, and Latin American nations used sepa ration of powers in new constitutions
Voltaire	Freedom of thought and expression	Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduced or eliminated censorship
Religious freedom	Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduced persecution
Beccaria	Abolishment of torture	Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced in nations of Europe and the Americas
Wollstonecraft	Women`s equality	Women’s rights groups form in Europe and North America