Video Lesson

Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

• appreciate the philosophical, historical and medical advancements of the ancient Greeks;
• comment on the merits and demerits of Athenian democracy;
• explain the relationships that existed between Greek city-states;
• mention some features of the Hellenistic Age.
• appreciate the achievements of the Etruscans;
• realize the social hierarchy prevalent in ancient Rome;
• explain the military exploits of Rome.

Brainstorming Questions

• What aspect of the civilization of ancient Greece is related with the discipline of history?
• Can you tell us two city states of ancient Greece?
• Who are the legendary founders of the city of Rome?
• What kind of government do you think is a republic?

Key Terms and Concepts

2.3. Civilizations in Europe (Ancient Greece and Rome)

2.3.1. Ancient Greece

Early civilization: The ancient Greeks established one of Europe’s earliest civilizations around 2500 B.C. Unlike civilizations along river valleys, Greek culture flourished through independent city-states, which emerged notably during the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. Each city-state functioned as a sovereign country centered on a single city, governing both its urban center and surrounding territories.

Administration/city states: The Greek term for city-states is polis, derived from the Acropolis of 5th century Athens, the center of government. Initially ruled by oligarchy, some city-states transitioned to democracy in the 5th century B.C., granting citizens (excluding women and slaves) voting rights and political office eligibility. Athens and Sparta were prominent city-states; Athens, the largest, reached a population of 25,000 to 40,000 by the 5th century B.C., relying on imports for grain due to limited fertile land, excelling in naval strength among city-states.

Democracy: Athens introduced the principle of direct democracy where all adult citizens, except women and slaves, took part in decision making processes. Accordingly, citizens could attend, speak and vote in the general meeting of the citizens called the Assembly. The Assembly passed laws, determined government policies and elects Athenian generals.

Writing system: The ancient Greeks developed their writing system around the 8th century B.C., which evolved into what is known as the Greek alphabet. The Greek alphabet consisting of 24 alphabets was derived from the earlier Phoenician script but adapted to represent the distinct sounds of the Greek language, including vowels and consonants.

Contribution: During the 5th century B.C., Athens emerged as the epicenter of Greek culture. It was a period marked by significant philosophical developments, with Socrates (470-399B.C), Plato (427-347B.C), and Aristotle (384-322B.C) are considered the most important Greek philosophers.  Greek achievements extended into architecture, sculpture, painting, arts (drama, theater, literature) medicine, physics, biology, and mathematics, laying foundational principles still relevant today. In medicine, Hippocrates (460-357B.C)., known as the father of medicine, laid down ethical principles that endure in the Hippocratic Oath, a solemn pledge taken by doctors today upon graduation.

Decline: The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) marked the decline of Athens’ golden age, as it was defeated by Sparta in a series of conflicts among Greek city-states. This weakened Greece and opened the door for Macedonia, under Philip II, to assert dominance. In 338 B.C., Philip II defeated the city-states, ending their independence. Following Philip’s death, his son Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.) expanded Macedonian power by conquering the Persian Empire. This conquest spread Greek culture, known as Hellenism, throughout Egypt and the Near East. After Alexander’s death in 323 B.C., his empire fragmented among his generals, leading to the Hellenistic Age.

The Hellenistic Age (323-30 B.C.) was characterized by Greek cultural influence blending with Asian and African cultures. It was a period of intense cultural exchange and innovation before the Roman conquest of Greece in 30 B.C., which marked the end of Greek political independence but continued the spread of Greek culture across the Mediterranean world.

2.3.2. Ancient Rome

Early civilization: Ancient Rome’s early history is covered in legend, with tradition suggesting that around 753 B.C., twin brothers Romulus and Remus founded a settlement on the Palatine Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome. This hill, integral to Rome’s ancient geography, is considered the initial nucleus of the Roman Empire. The area had been inhabited since around 1000 B.C. by the Latins, who were among the earliest settlers of ancient Rome and established their community on this hilly terrain.

Beginning in the 7th century B.C., Rome came under Etruscan control, leading to significant developments in its infrastructure and governance. The Etruscans, known for their advanced construction of roads, temples, and public buildings, also introduced the concept of a citizen assembly and fostered trade, transforming Rome from a village into a prosperous city.

Rome’s growth under Etruscan rule eventually empowered its people to expel the Etruscans, overthrow the monarchy, and establish the Roman Republic in 509 B.C. Within this new political framework, the Senate emerged as the dominant governing body, responsible for foreign policy, legislation, and the administration of the republic’s finances. This transition marked a pivotal moment in Roman history, laying the foundation for centuries of republican governance and expansion that would shape the Mediterranean world and beyond.

Roman social structure: was highly hierarchical, divided into three main classes:

Patricians: Rome’s oldest and wealthiest families, held all significant political positions, including seats in the Senate. Equites: the wealthiest non-nobles, often owned land and engaged in business. Plebeians: the common citizens included small farmers, craftsmen, shopkeepers, and laborers, also working on large estates owned by the wealthy. Slaves were a crucial part of Roman society. Slave revolts, such as the unsuccessful uprising led by Spartacus from 73 to 71 B.C., were violently suppressed, with participants often facing crucifixion.

Military expansions: Rome’s rise to power began with its military expansion across the Italian peninsula, offering protection and Roman citizenship to conquered cities in exchange for soldiers. By 270 B.C., Rome had gained control over most of Italy.

The expansion brought Rome into conflict with Carthage, a prominent maritime power in North Africa. This rivalry ended in three Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.) fought for dominance over the Mediterranean Sea. Rome emerged victorious after defeating Carthage in 146 B.C., gaining control over Spain, North Africa, and including Egypt.

Internal conflict and stability: In the last century of the Roman Republic, internal conflicts among leaders led to significant disorder. Julius Caesar, a successful general, emerged as the sole ruler of Rome by 44 B.C. However, a group of senators assassinated Caesar. This event caused a power struggle between Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian, and his friend Mark Antony.

Antony allied with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt (47 – 30 B.C), seeking to challenge Octavian’s authority. Their forces clashed in 31 B.C., culminating in Octavian’s victory over Antony and Cleopatra. Egypt was subsequently annexed as a Roman province. In 27 B.C., Octavian assumed the title Augustus, becoming the first Roman emperor. Despite his vast authority, Augustus preferred the title of princeps, meaning “first citizen,” rather than emperor. Augustus reign initiated a period of relative stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, during which Rome experienced significant cultural and economic advancements. The reign of Augustus marked the beginning of the Pax Romana, a roughly 200-year period of stability and prosperity in Roman history.

Writing system: The Romans also adapted and passed down the Latin alphabet, originally derived from the Etruscans and Greeks, which forms the basis of many modern alphabets.

Contributions: Romans made significant contributions in Latin literature, poetry, and prose. They excelled in warfare, governance, and law, with Roman legal principles influencing many Western legal systems. Roman engineering ability is evident in their construction of civil and military roads, aqueducts that supplied water to cities, and iconic structures like the Roman Forum, Temple of Venus and Rome, and the Colosseum.

Decline: In 395 A.D., the Roman Empire split into two: the Western Roman Empire, centered in Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), centered in Constantinople (modern Istanbul). Germanic peoples such as the Vandals and Visigoths gained control over Roman provinces like Spain, Gaul (modern France), and North Africa. In 410 A.D., the Visigoths who are Germanic tribe looted Rome, and in 476 A.D., the Western Roman Empire formally collapsed when the last Roman emperor was deposed.

However the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, continued to exist with Constantinople as its capital. It endured until 1453 when the city fell to the Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of Ottoman rule over Constantinople and much of the Eastern Mediterranean.