Video Lesson

Lesson Objective

After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• point out the different stages of human evolution;
• compare and contrast the achievements of the different stages of the Stone Age;
• explain the different theories about human evolution;
• prepare a map showing the major archeological sites of human origin;
• analyze how human society was organized from simple to complex;
• debate on different views on the origin of human beings;
• appreciate major contributions of the Neolithic revolution to modern human beings.

Brainstorming Questions

• How do cultural remains help us to interpret human evolution?
• How are our lives today affected by the Neolithic Revolution?

Key Terms and Concepts

1.2. Origin of Human Beings

1.2.1. Theories of Origin

Since the middle of the 19th century, following the emergence of scientific discipline such as anthropology and archaeology scholars began to assess the origin of human being. Currently, creationist and scientific views are the two major views concerning human origin.
1. Creationist View

Creationist view bases on the religious beliefs that everything is created by supernatural acts of divine power. Creationists believe that the earth and life on it including human beings with all complete physical shape and structure was created by a supernatural force.
2. Scientific View

The scientific view about human origin is also called the theory of evolution. Evolution is a gradual change and process that simple things developed into complex things over a very long period of time (thousands, millions or billions of years). Those who believe in this view are called evolutionists.  In the 19^th c there were strong debate between creationist and scientific (evolutionist) viewer over the human origin. In the middle of the 19th century Charles Darwin published his work entitled the “Origin of Species by Natural Selection” in 1859. According to this theory human beings are developed from lower being through a gradual and natural process of change. Darwin`s scientific work described evolution and natural selection as theoretical explanation for evolutionary philosophy. Eventually, Darwin`s theoretical explanation became the most convincing of all theories of evolution

1.2.2. Stages of Human Evolution Hominids

Hominid refers to the scientific family of human beings or human like creatures with enlarged brains and the ability to walk upright on two legs. The two African apes, gorillas and chimpanzees, are believed to be the closest living relatives of humans.

These species are classified as members of a separate zoological family called pongidae. Anthropologists believe that human beings, gorillas and chimpanzees all developed from a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 5 million years ago. Scientists have calculated that the split between hominids and the line leading to chimpanzees and gorillas occurred millions of years ago. Biochemical studies of fossil evidence have also told us a great deal about the relationship between humans and apelike creatures.

1.2.2.1. Australopithecines: The First Humans

Since the earliest known Australopithecine fossils were discovered in South Africa by archaeologists the word Australopithecine literally means “southern ape.” These earliest human species are believed to have evolved in Africa around 6 million years ago.  Having small canine teeth and bipedalism (walking on two legs) locomotion are the two main distinguishing features of human species from apes. However, some characteristics such as brain size which is 390 -550 cc (cubic centimeter) makes australopithecine and ape’s share in common features.

In addition australopithecine’s body weight ranged from 27 to 49 kg, and they stood 1.1-1.5 m that is, closely equivalent to those of chimpanzees. Countries where fossil remains of genus Australopithecus were excavated include Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa and Chad.

	Name of species	Place of discovery	Age (Estimated time)	Year of Discovery
1	Australopithecus anamensis	Kenya	4.2 – 3.9 million years ago	1994
2	Australopithecus afarensis	Ethiopia(Hadar in Afar region)	3.9 – 2.9 million years ago	1974
3	Australopithecus bahrelghazali	Central Africa (around Lake Chad)	3.5 – 3 million years ago	1995
4	Australopithecus aethiopicus	Lake Turkana region in Kenya	2.9 – 2.6 million years ago	1985
5	Australopithecus africanus	Southern Africa	3 – 2.5 million years	1924
6	Australopithecus boisei	East Africa	2.5 – 1.5 million years	1959
7	Australopithecus robustus	Southern Africa	2.5 – 1.5 million years	1938

1.2.2.2. Genus Homo and Appearance of Modern Humans

Current scientific knowledge about the origins of humans indicates that Africa is the cradle of humankind. Homo most likely originated in Africa around 2.5 million years ago. Australopithecus afarensis may have been an ancestor of the Homo genus. Members of the genus Homo had larger brains and smaller jaws than Australopithecus.

Homo habilis (handy human) was the first member of the genus Homo, living in eastern and southern Africa around 2 million years ago. Homo habilis created the first stone tools, consisting of flakes and cores. Oldowan technology is named after the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where it was first discovered. A partial Homo habilis skull dating back to around 1.9 million years was discovered in Ethiopia’s lower Omo basin.

Homo erectus (the upright human) appears to have originated in Africa and was the first hominid to spread into Asia and Europe. The oldest fossils of this species date back approximately 1.7 to 1.8 million years. Homo erectus had a slightly smaller brain and slightly larger teeth than modern humans do. The species stood more than 1.5 meters tall and walked upright on two legs.

Homo erectus was the first hominid to create small, precise stone tools with precise shapes, particularly the “hand axe”. These tools are commonly referred to as “Acheulian” after the name of the small town in northern France, Saint-Acheul, where one of them was discovered. Homo erectus was most likely the first hominid to master the use of fire, approximately 1.5 million years ago. Homo erectus fossils have been discovered in several Ethiopian sites, including the Lower Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso-Gardula, Middle Awash (central Afar), and Gedeb (Gedeo zone). Homo erectus fossils were also discovered in Indonesia, Germany, and China.

Homo sapiens there are two categories of Homo sapiens: “archaic” and “modern.”

The “archaic” Homo sapiens which inhabited most of Africa and Europe, appears to have evolved from Homo erectus sometime between 300,000 and 600,000 years ago. At Bodo in Middle Awash, bones from ancient Homo sapiens, including a partial cranium, were discovered. At several locations across Africa and Eurasia, fossil bones and microlithic stone tools belonging to prehistoric Homo sapiens have also been discovered.

 “Modern” Homo sapiens include all living humans plus fossil populations from about at least 100,000 years. The Near East (western Asia), the Middle East, Africa, and Europe contain the earliest known sites of modern Homo sapiens. At Kibish in the Lower Omo Basin, fossils of this hominid, including a complete cranium estimated to be over 100,000 years old, have been found. From a Porc Epic cave site close to Dire Dawa, a lower jaw dating to roughly the same time has also been discovered. About 35,000 years ago, modern humans existed in Africa, Eurasia, and Australia. They also extended into the Americas much later. They lived a lifestyle of hunting and gathering.

Characteristic	Homo habilis	Homo erectus	Homo sapiens
Time Period	Approx. 2 million years ago	Approx. 1.8- 1.7 million years ago	Approx. 300,000 – 600,000 years ago to present
Body Structure	Relatively small and slim	Larger and more robust	Modern human-like, varied sizes
Brain Size	Smaller (510 – 600 cc)	Larger (600 – 1100 cc)	Largest (around 1300 – 1400 cc)
Tool Use	Used primitive stone tools (Oldowan tools)	Used more advanced Acheulean tools (mainly the “hand axe”)	Advanced tool-making skills (micro lithic tools)
Habitat	Lived in Africa	Spread out of Africa into Asia and Europe	Global distribution
Extinction	Extinct	Extinct	Extant (currently living)

1.2.3. Early Cultural Developments

Early humans advanced into civilization’s first phase by making stone tools, marking the beginning of the Stone Age around 2.5 million years ago, which continued until 5,000 years ago in some regions. This technological rise, involving the creation and use of stone tools and weapons through chipping stones, profoundly impacted human evolution.

Archaeologists categorize the Stone Age into Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age) based on tool types and techniques. Some other scholars prefer dividing it into the Old Stone Age (2.5 million – 8000 B.P) and the New Stone Age (8,000 – 5,000 B.P) due to difficulties in clearly distinguishing between tool periods.

Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) (2.5 million-10,000 BP)

In the Old Stone Age, besides making tools and weapons from stone, humans discovered fire, learned to live in caves, made clothing from animal skins, and painted cave walls. Paleolithic people were hunter-gatherers.

Archaeologists divide the Paleolithic period into three stages:

• Lower Paleolithic (2.5 million-200,000 B.P),
• Middle Paleolithic (200,000 – 30,000 B.P), and
• Upper Paleolithic (40,000-10,000 B.P).

The Lower Paleolithic (Early Old Stone Age), is characterized by two main stone tool technologies: Oldowan and Acheulean.

Oldowan stone tools were made using a technique called “direct percussion” or flaking, creating large, sharp-edged core tools for breaking bones and cutting meat or plants, as well as smaller flakes for scraping hides and sharpening sticks.

Oldowan sites across Africa include Ethiopia’s Gona, Afar, and Omo (2.5 million to 2.3 million years ago), Kenya’s Lokalalei and Koobi Fora (2.3 million to 1.9-1.4 million years ago), Tanzania’s Olduvai Gorge (1.9 million to 1.2 million years ago), Algeria’s Ain Hanech (1.7 million years ago), and South Africa’s Sterkfontein and Swartkrans (2 million to 1.5 million years ago).

oldowan stone tools

Acheulean stone tools refer to the “hand axe” technology that developed in Africa, the Near East, Europe and Asia dating from 1.5 million – 200,000 B.P. These tools, known as bifaces, were typically flaked on both sides, featuring sharp edges, a pointed end, and a rounded top. Some of the oldest Acheulean sites include Konso-Gardula, Gedeb, and Melka-Kunture in Ethiopia.

acheulean stone tools

Middle Paleolithic during this period, Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens. Archaeological sites often found in caves and rock shelters were crucial for protection against predators and provided warmth and shelter. Tool-making techniques became more refined and standardized during this time.

In Africa south of the Sahara, around 200,000 years ago, hominids shifted from making hand axes and large tools to creating a variety of smaller tools using flake technology. Some of these tools, like spear points and knives, allowed hominids to better exploit their environment. The Gademotta site in Ethiopia’s Rift Valley, dating back 200,000 years, is among Africa’s oldest Middle Paleolithic sites. Other significant sites in the Horn of Africa include Melka-Kunture, Porc Epic, and Kone in Ethiopia, and Midhishi and Gud Gud in Somalia.

The Upper Paleolithic, which lasted from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago, saw the widespread use of standardized blade technology. Towards the end of this period, microliths—small geometric-shaped blade segments—became common and were used in composite tools like arrows and bows. In Africa, these innovations are termed Late Stone Age tools, while in Europe, they are known as Upper Paleolithic tools. Bones were also utilized to craft various types of tools during this period, marking a time of rapid biological and cultural evolution for humans.

Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age) (10,000 – 5,000 B.P)

Around 11,000 years ago, some human groups began practicing food production through plant and animal domestication, marking the Neolithic Revolution. As agriculture became dominant, humans engaged in selective breeding of plants and animals, leading to profound changes in lifestyle and landscapes. Settlements became more permanent, with people organizing around base camps and developing new tools and technologies. The Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, encompassing modern-day Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Syria, and Turkey, is renowned as one of the earliest regions where agriculture flourished. Here, sedentary lifestyles emerged, along with the domestication of plants and animals, leading to the formation of villages and small towns.

This period also saw the development of social hierarchies and specialized roles, such as priests, chieftains, merchants, craftsmen, and shepherds. Neolithic humans invented tools like the axe and millstone for grinding grains, and pottery for cooking and storage. Trade and exchange of goods increased, while religious practices and sacred sites became more prominent. With growing populations and competition for resources, conflicts among human communities also began to emerge during this transformative period.

microlithic tool

Characteristic	Paleolithic	Neolithic
Time Period	Roughly 2.5 million years ago to about 10,000 years ago	Around 10,000 to 4,500 years ago
Technology	Simple stone tools (hand axes, spears)	Advanced stone tools (polished axes, sickles), pottery, weaving
Lifestyle	Nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle	Transition to settled farming communities
Shelter	Temporary shelters (caves, rock overhangs)	Permanent settlements (houses made of mud-brick)
Food Source	Hunting wild animals, gathering wild plants	Domestication of plants (agriculture), some animal husbandry
Social Structure	Small bands, egalitarian	Larger communities, emerging social hierarchies
Art and Culture	Cave paintings, simple figurines	Pottery, more elaborate art and ornamentation

1.2.4. The Neolithic Revolution in the Ethiopian Region

Neolithic cultural elements, alongside other cultural aspects, have been identified in northern and southern Ethiopia since around 4,000 B.C. Archaeological findings reveal evidence of a Neolithic culture in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, characterized by features like ceramic traditions, polished stone tools, domestication of plants and animals, and settled lifestyles.

Archaeologists have discovered Neolithic artifacts in Ethiopia such as; remains of camel dental fragments dating back to 2,500 B.C. were discovered at Gobedra near Aksum, while chickpeas and vegetables from 500 B.C. were found at Lalibela Cave. Evidence suggesting the domestication of cattle around the 2nd millennium B.C. has been identified at Lake Beseka in central Ethiopia. Excavations at Akordat and Barentu in Eritrea yielded grinding stones and polished axes. These findings, including axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, and stone figures, indicate the development of a Neolithic culture in the region, setting the stage for the emergence of complex societies.

It is believed that agricultural practices were established in northern Ethiopia between 3,000 and 2,000 B.C. During this Neolithic period, communities adopted sedentary lifestyles, domesticated plants and animals, and utilized ceramics for cooking and storage. The diverse environment of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa fostered the cultivation of various plants, including root crops like enset and grains such as teff, noog, finger millet, and coffee, which remain staple foods in the region today.