Video Lesson

Lesson Objective

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

• identify the major civilizations that flourished in Mesopotamia;
• appreciate the achievements of the Sumerians;
• differentiate the positive and negative aspects of the codes of Hammurabi;
• realize the main idea behind the “Middle Way” in Buddhist religious teaching;
• tell the different assumptions on the destruction of the civilization of India;
• exercise the five human relationships of Confucian philosophy;
• explain the achievements of the different periods of ancient Chinese history;

Brainstorming Questions

• Have you ever heard rivers named Tigris and Euphrates?
• How do you relate them with the civilizations of Mesopotamia?
• What were the contributions of the Assyrians to the field of military science?
• What is the place of the Dravidians in the civilization of ancient India?
• How do you explain the value of river valley in making civilizations possible?
• What similar stories you observe in the religious practices of human beings including the Chinese?

Key Terms and Concepts

2.2. Civilizations in Asia (Mesopotamia, India and China)

2.2.1 Mesopotamia

Early civilization: Ancient Asia was home to several early civilizations, many of which were organized as city-states. Around 2900 B.C., civilization thrived in Sumeria, situated in present-day Southern Iraq between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This region, known as Mesopotamia (from the Greek for “between rivers”), was defined by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that surrounded it. In Mesopotamian city-states, most residents’ farmers, priests, officials, soldiers, craftsmen, and traders lived within city walls, with the majority being farmers who worked outside daily. Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia lacked grand monuments for kings and gods due to the scarcity of stone and quality timber. Instead, archaeologists have unearthed significant structures made from sun-dried mud bricks.

Administration: In Sumerian city-states, rulers are known as lugals. They were absolute kings who governed as representatives of the chief deity, not as gods themselves like in Egypt. Their main duty was ensuring proper worship of the gods to ensure prosperity and security.

Contributions: The Sumerians, predating city-states, pioneered advancements in various fields. Known for their mastery in metalworking, they crafted impressive bronze artifacts. Similar to ancient Egyptians, they excelled in astronomy and mathematics, innovating concepts like the division of hours into 60 minutes and the circle into 360 degrees. Their cultural achievements extended to law, arts, and science, including detailed studies of celestial bodies, distinguishing planets from fixed stars and laying foundations for modern astronomy.

Writing system: Between 3200-2900 BC, the Sumerians developed a writing system known as cuneiform, which used wedge-shaped characters pressed into clay tablets. This complex, non-alphabetic system was similar to hieroglyphics and became essential for recording information.

The Babylon: situated on the Euphrates River near modern-day al-Hillah, Iraq, was a prominent ancient city and capital of Babylonia. It served as a significant hub for trade and religion, with its name meaning “gate of the god.” Founded by King Sumuabum around 1894 B.C., Babylon’s most renowned ruler was Hammurabi, who reigned from 1792 to 1750 B.C. He is celebrated for establishing a just legal code that governed economic transactions, property rights, and criminal punishments, though penalties were harsher for ordinary people. Hammurabi’s code became a foundational model for subsequent legal systems. In the region, Babylon eventually yielded to the Assyrians, who built the largest empire in the Middle East from the 9th century B.C., sharing similarities in civilization with their southern neighbors, the Babylonians.

The Assyrians: often known as the Romans of Asia, were renowned conquerors known for their formidable organization, weaponry, and military skill comprised cavalry, chariots, and infantry. They spoke Semitic languages and originally call to from what is now northern Iraq. Initially centered in Ashur and later in Nineveh along the Tigris River, their kings wielded absolute power as representatives of the chief Assyrian god, Ashur.

Assyrian society encompassed nobles, small-scale landowners, traders, hired laborers, and a minority of slaves. Trade played a crucial role in their economy, with substantial state revenues derived from trade-related taxation. After reaching its peak in the mid-7th century B.C., Assyria faced a decline due to attacks from the Medians and Babylonians. In 612 B.C., Ashur and Nineveh were captured and destroyed, weakened further by internal succession struggles. This allowed the Medians and Babylonians to overthrow the Assyrian Empire.

The New Babylonian Empire: emerged in 626 B.C. under Nabopolassar, who, along with his son Nebuchadnezzar II, expanded Babylonian control across the Middle East. Nebuchadnezzar II notably rebuilt Babylon, constructing massive walls and impressive structures like the Hanging Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Despite this magnificence, subsequent rulers were unpopular, leading to internal instability. In 539 B.C., Persian invaders conquered Babylon, bringing an end to the New Babylonian Empire and marking the transition of power to the Persian Empire.

Ancient Persia: encompassing present-day Iran and Afghanistan derived its name from Persis, known as the land of the Aryans by its inhabitants. The founder of the Persian Empire was Cyrus the Great (557-530 B.C.), and his successors expanded the empire to become the largest of its time. The Persian Emperor ruled absolutely as the representative of Ahura Mazda, the Persian god. The empire was administratively divided into satrapies, each governed by a satrap. Persian values emphasized horsemanship, archery, and truthfulness, while lying and indebtedness were deeply frowned upon in their society.

Early Persians were primarily farmers and traders. They employed sophisticated irrigation techniques to cultivate crops such as wheat, barley, oats, and vegetables, using underground tunnels to minimize water evaporation and bringing water from distant sources. Persian trade routes facilitated the transportation of goods from various regions to the Mediterranean Sea via caravans. Throughout the empire, a standardized gold currency known as darics, named after Emperor Darius I who introduced them in the 5th century B.C., was widely used for economic transactions.

Zoroaster, a sixth-century B.C. Persian prophet, founded Zoroastrianism, teaching the concept of two opposing forces: Ahura Mazda as the god of good and Ahriman as the embodiment of evil. In 331 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire modern day Iran and Afghanistan, integrating the region into his vast empire.

2.2.2. India

Early civilization: The Indus Valley civilization, originating around 2500 BC and flourishing until about 1500 BC, was initiated by the indigenous Dravidian people of northern India. Key cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have been excavated by archaeologists, revealing advanced urban features. Mohenjo-daro’s role as a capital or city-state remains unclear. Both cities exhibited large size and a distinctive grid-like layout indicative of sophisticated urban planning. They boasted efficient water supply and drainage systems, and their buildings were constructed from baked brick, highlighting technological prowess for the time period.

Religious development: Southern India predominantly remained Dravidian. From the beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans, Hinduism emerged as a major religion in India. Central to Hinduism is the concept of reincarnation, where individuals undergo cycles of rebirth based on their actions, aiming for spiritual progress. Salvation in Hinduism can be attained through renunciation of worldly pleasures and pursuit of spiritual knowledge under the guidance of a guru.

Buddhism, a reform movement that emerged from Hinduism, was founded by Siddhartha Gautama around 563-483 BC. It advocated the “middle way” to achieve salvation, avoiding extremes of asceticism and materialism. Buddhism spread beyond India to Southeast Asia, China, and Japan, influencing cultures and societies through its teachings on compassion, non-violence, and inner peace.

Contributions: Indian scholars made significant contributions to various fields of science and mathematics. Indian physicians advanced in surgery and herbal medicine for treating diseases. Hindu scientists in chemistry enabled advancements such as leather tanning, dyeing cloth, soap making, cement production, glass manufacturing, and refining steel. However, their greatest contributions were in mathematics. Indian mathematicians pioneered the use of what are now known as Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.), which were later developed further by the Arabs. They also introduced the decimal system and the concept of zero, fundamental to modern mathematics.

Decline: After the decline of the Indus Valley civilization, potential causes such as environmental degradation, epidemics like malaria, shifts in the Indus River’s course, and climatic changes have been suggested. Indo-Aryan migrations from northern India and Persia followed, displacing the Dravidian peoples. Indo-Aryans settled in northern India’s fertile plains, founding various civilized states.

2.2.3. China

Early civilization: The earliest centers of civilization and states in China emerged in the northern regions, expanding gradually southward over time. The first dynasty, the Shang dynasty (c. 1700 – 1122 B.C.), was centered in the Huang-He (Yellow River) valley. It evolved into a sophisticated society governed by a hereditary class of aristocrats. The Shang dynasty achieved notable advancements including the creation of impressive bronze vessels, the innovation of horse-drawn war chariots, and the establishment of a system of writing.

Writing system: The earliest Chinese script began as pictographs, which were literal drawings or images representing objects. Over time, these characters evolved to become more simplified and less pictographic. The Chinese language consists of approximately 50,000 characters, and the writing system is predominantly logographic.

Warring state period: Around 1122 B.C., the Zhou people from western China overthrew the Shang dynasty and established their own ruling dynasty, which lasted until 256 B.C. The later period of the Zhou dynasty was marked by intense warfare among competing Chinese states, known as the “warring states period” (403-221 B.C.).

Confucius and Confucianism: Confucius (551-479 BC) is revered as the most influential philosopher in Chinese history. Born Kong Qiu or K’ung Fu-Tzu, his philosophy, known as Confucianism, emphasizes the importance of moral character and social responsibility. Confucianism gained prominence after his death and became China’s dominant ideology from around 100 B.C. until the 1911 revolution.

Confucianism is primarily a secular philosophy rather than a religion. Central to his teachings were the five cardinal human relationships: ruler to subject, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, and friend to friend. These relationships were characterized by authority and obedience, except for friendships, which were based on mutual respect.

Mencius (372-289 B.C.), another significant Confucian philosopher, argued that human nature is inherently good, emphasizing the importance of nurturing compassion and ethical behavior. Mencius looked to the past as a model for addressing contemporary challenges, advocating for ethical governance and personal integrity based on the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.”

Qin Shi Huang Empire: During the later Zhou period, regional states in eastern China engaged in prolonged warfare to unify the entire country. In 221 B.C., the Qin state emerged victorious and established China’s first empire under Qin Shi Huang, known as the First Emperor. His rule was characterized by Legalism, a philosophy emphasizing centralized authority, efficient administration, and strict laws. This legalistic approach, combined with Confucian moral values, provided a foundation that enabled Chinese empires to endure for over 2000 years.

Contributions: Ancient Chinese civilization made numerous significant discoveries and inventions. They pioneered the use of coal and developed porcelain (Chinaware), the wheelbarrow, and varnish for glossy finishes on surfaces. The Chinese also discovered silk production from silkworm cocoons, establishing a lucrative silk industry and trade. Around 150 A.D., they invented papermaking from cotton, revolutionizing communication and knowledge dissemination. Chinese innovations further included the development of printing technology and the early use of gunpowder by 600 A.D.