In the 16th-19th centuries, Africa saw the rise of various states and shifts in power. The Funj Sultanate, founded in 1504 in Nubia by the Funj people, expanded significantly but faced attacks from Ethiopia before being conquered by Egypt in 1821. In Morocco, the Sa`dids, and later the Alawid Dynasty, established a powerful state that controlled parts of West Africa before weakening due to internal strife and the rise of local rulers like the Arma. In East Africa, the Buganda and Rwanda kingdoms flourished through agriculture and trade.

West Africa saw powerful states like Benin, Oyo, Dahomey, and Ashante emerge, each excelling in trade and military prowess. The Kingdom of Kongo, once a major player in the slave trade, declined due to internal issues and external pressures. In southern Africa, the Zulu Kingdom, led by Shaka Zulu, rose in response to Boer expansion but weakened under British pressure.

The Ottoman Empire dominated North Africa until the 19th century, with control weakening over time, leading to increased local autonomy and colonial incursions by the French and others.