Video Lesson

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• evaluate the main factors that led to the restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty;
• highlight the main features of the Christian Kingdom under the restored “Solomonic” dynasty’
• demonstrate analytical and argumentation skills by debating on the factors for the conflict between the Christian kingdom and Muslim sultanates.

Brainstorming Questions

• Was the designation of “Solomonic” to the new dynasty which assumed power
  in 1270 justifiable?
• What do people in your locality understand by the name “Solomon” or “Saba”?
  What sort of inspiration do they have?

Key terms and concepts

Restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty

The Zagwe Dynasty fell around 1270 due to opposition from its tributary region of Amhara, which included present-day southern Wollo and northern Shewa. The Amhara ruling class, led by local ruler Yikuno Amlak (r. 1270-85), seized political power and established the Solomonic Dynasty. This transition marked the beginning of the Ethiopian Medieval Period, which lasted from 1270 to 1855.

King Yikuno Amlak and his followers adopted the Solomonic name to legitimize their rule by claiming descent from the legendary Queen of Sheba and King Solomon through the last Aksumite king, Dil Naod. They used this claim to assert that the Zagwe rulers were illegitimate and to present themselves as restorers of the ancient dynasty. This narrative was codified in the 14th-century text “Kibre Negest” (“The Glory of Kings”). The Solomonic Dynasty, despite its legendary basis, was widely accepted and lasted over 700 years, with all Christian monarchs of Ethiopia up to 1974 claiming descent from Yikuno Amlak’s family.

The capital of the Christian highland kingdom was initially moved from Lalibela in Lasta to the Lake Hayk area in Medieval Amhara. Over time, the center of the Christian state shifted to Shewa. However, the kingdom later adopted a practice of “moving” or “roving” capitals, where the royal court frequently relocated among different districts in the eastern foothills of the Shewan plateau.

Basic Features of the Christian Highland Kingdom: State Structure, Social Stratification and the Economy

In the early 14th century, under Yikuno Amlak, the Christian Highland Kingdom’s territory was initially limited to the former Zagwe state’s lands. The kingdom bordered several independent Muslim and non-Muslim states, including the Felasha to the northwest, the Agew-occupied kingdom of Gojjam across the Abay River, and the kingdom of Damot to the southwest. The exact nature of the Christian kingdom’s relationships with these states and peoples during Yikuno Amlak’s reign is unclear, but they likely involved trade and gradual Christian missionary expansion.

However, under King Amde Tsiyon (r. 1314-44), grandson of Yikuno Amlak, the Christian Highland Kingdom began vigorous territorial expansion. Amde Tsiyon was notably expansionist, leading to a long period of conflict and war in the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa. Despite this, the influence of the Christian state remained strong in the region until the early 16th century, when the rise of the Adal Sultanate under Imam Ahmad led to a decline in its dominance.

The Christian Highland Kingdom’s large-scale territorial expansion under the Solomonic dynasty was accompanied by the spread of the Orthodox Church into new regions like Shewa, Gojjam, Begemdir, and around Lake Tana. During this time, the kingdom’s economy was primarily agricultural, centered on mixed farming, with prosperous agrarian communities that often had large families and enslaved household servants. From the 14th century onward, Ethiopian feudalism became entrenched as a political and economic system, with kings granting land to officials in exchange for military or administrative services.

Trade became crucial to the economy of the Christian Highland Kingdom, especially after King Amde Tsiyon and his successors gained military control over regional sultanates. From 1270 to 1529, Zeyla emerged as the primary trade gateway, replacing the Red Sea coast. This trade, often referred to as the Zeyla trade, involved commodities like ivory and gold from western and southwestern Ethiopia, and cereals and fruits from the highlands. Muslim merchants largely controlled this trade, which generated significant revenue for the Christian kings, who also engaged in and financed large caravans. The expansion of long-distance trade interconnected various peoples and states in the region, fostering economic interdependence and cultural exchange. However, competition to control trade routes led to frequent conflicts between the Christian Highland Kingdom and the regional sultanates.

During this period, the consolidation of the feudal system in Ethiopia was marked by the implementation of the Gult system. Kings appointed officials and allowed hereditary chiefs to remain in power under close supervision. The Gult system granted officials the right to collect tribute from local peoples. This tribute system, involving the collection of various goods from peasants, was managed by the Bale Gult, who retained most of the tribute and used local labor. The Bale Gult also maintained law and order, administered justice, and raised regional armies when needed. This system facilitated the administration of the vast kingdom and persisted until the 1974 Revolution.

Additionally, the medieval Christian Highland Kingdom was characterized by a mobile royal court. From 1270 until Gondar became the permanent capital in 1636, the kings ruled from various temporary capitals across the Shewa district. The court, including the king, officials, and soldiers, lived in tents and temporary huts, resulting in a lack of permanent structures such as palaces.

During the medieval period, the royal court of the Christian Highland Kingdom frequently moved from region to region. This mobility was driven by the need for fresh supplies, firewood, and to suppress rebellions by positioning the court near unrest. Although this strategy helped maintain relative peace and stability, it also meant there were no permanent structures like castles or palaces. However, from the mid-15th century onward, some kings, such as Zer`a Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68), began to establish more permanent residences. Zer`a Ya`ekob founded Debre Birhan in 1454 and resided there for fourteen years, reflecting a shift towards more stationary rule.

Power Struggle, Consolidation, and Territorial and Religious Expansion of the Christian Highland Kingdom

Succession Problem and Its Solution

After Yikuno Amlak’s death in 1285, the Solomonic Dynasty faced significant internal instability due to intense power struggles among his descendants. From 1294 to 1299, five different kings briefly ruled. This instability was addressed around 1300 with the establishment of the mountain fortress Amba Gishen (or Debre Negest), where all male descendants of Yikuno Amlak, except his sons, were confined. They could receive education, work, and marry but were unable to leave the fortress. This system, which included guarding the passes and foothills with loyal warriors, ensured smooth successions and helped consolidate the Christian state. The practice continued until Amba Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad of Adal in 1540.

Consolidation and Territorial Expansion

Under the Solomonic Dynasty, which succeeded the Zagwe rulers, the Christian Highland Kingdom expanded rapidly during King Amde Tsiyon’s reign (1314-44). Amde Tsiyon, known for his aggressive expansion, incorporated the kingdoms of Damot, Felasha, and Gojjam, gaining manpower and trade resources. He extended his conquests into northern provinces, reaching as far as Massawa in modern-day Eritrea, and appointed a governor there.

His initial successes set the stage for major conflicts with the powerful Muslim Sultanate of Ifat, which controlled key Zeyla trade routes and posed a threat to the Christian kingdom’s economic interests. In 1325, after Ifat’s sultan Haqq ad-Din I arrested a Christian commercial agent, Amde Tsiyon used this as a pretext to launch a surprise attack in 1328, achieving a decisive victory and plundering Ifat.

In retaliation, Haqq ad-Din’s successor, Daradir, launched a major offensive against the Christian kingdom, initially defeating the imperial army. However, in a subsequent battle, Daradir was defeated, captured, and killed, marking a significant blow to Ifat.

In the south, Amde Tsiyon annexed the Sultanate of Hadya around 1317. Although Hadya initially paid tribute to the Christian Highland Kingdom, effective control was lacking. Encouraged by Muslim merchants, Hadya’s ruler, Garad Amano, rebelled by ceasing tribute payments. In response, Amde Tsiyon led a strong army to crush the rebellion, destroy Hadya, and capture Amano. After this defeat, Hadya was reduced to tributary status and became a major source of manpower for the Christian highland kingdom’s army.

Amde Tsiyon’s military conquests disrupted the economic interests of Muslim merchants and Sultanates between Hadya and the coast, leading to an alliance against him. The alliance, led by Ifat’s ruler Sabr ad-Din I, launched an attack in 1332 but was defeated. Sabr ad-Din fled to the Sultanate of Dawaro, where he was captured by Amde Tsiyon, reducing Ifat to tributary status and installing a Christian garrison there.

Amde Tsiyon continued to subdue other Sultanates along the Zeyla trade routes, expanding the Christian Highland Kingdom’s territory significantly by 1344. Following this, the rulers of Ifat migrated east and established the Sultanate of Adal around 1380, which emerged as a new rival. The conflict with Adal intensified under Sultan Haqq ad-Din II, who initially won several victories but was defeated and killed in 1387.

Adal’s struggle continued under Sultan Sa`ad ad-Din II, who was also defeated in the early 15th century. Sa`ad ad-Din fled but was later killed in Zeyla in 1403. His sons sought refuge in Yemen, leading to a period of weakened Adal and no serious challenges to the Christian Highland Kingdom for the next thirty years.

In the 1430s, the Sultanate of Adal regained power under Sultan Ahmed Badlay, becoming a major threat to the Christian Highland Kingdom. King Yishak (r. 1413-30) attempted to counter this threat but died in 1430 without success. Sultan Ahmed then united the Sultanates of the lowlands against King Zer`a Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68) and gained support from Mahiko, the Garad of Hadya. Despite initial setbacks, Zer`a Ya`ekob defeated Ahmed’s forces in 1445, killing both Ahmed and Mahiko. This victory marked the peak of the Christian Highland Kingdom’s dominance.

However, the kingdom’s power began to wane in the late 15th century. Zer`a Ya`ekob managed internal revolts and repelled attacks from Adal and Hadya, but his successor, Be`ede Mariyam (r. 1468-78), struggled against increasing pressure from the Sultanates. During Be`ede Mariyam’s reign, the Christian army suffered its first significant defeat. By March 1529, the decline of the Christian Highland Kingdom culminated in a decisive defeat by a coalition of Muslim lowlanders led by Imam Ahmad of Adal at the Battle of Shimbra Kure, marking the rise of Adal as the dominant power in the region.

Religious Expansion

During the medieval period, the territorial expansion of the Christian Highland Kingdom was paralleled by the growth of Christianity. Under the Solomonic dynasty, Christianity was revitalized in Shewa, notably at the monastery of Debre Libanos, founded by Abune Tekle Haymanot. Tekle Haymanot also converted King Motalami of Damot to Christianity. Earlier, the monastery of Hayk Istifanos, established by Abba Iyasus Moa, had already set the stage for widespread monasticism in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

Christianity spread south and west of Shewa through the efforts of Tekle Haymanot’s and Iyasus Moa’s disciples, reaching Gojjam, Damot, Enarya, and Wajj. In the 14th and 15th centuries, new monasteries and churches were established, including notable ones on Lake Ziway and Lake Tana.The state often supported the evangelization process by funding the construction of churches and monasteries and granting them large land holdings. The clergy played a crucial role in promoting Christianity and supporting the legitimacy of the Christian kings. This church-state alliance was most prominent during the reign of King Zer`a Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68).