Video Lesson

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• identify the roles of Islam and trade in state formation in the Ethiopian region and
  the Horn;
• point out the common features of the Sultanates of the Ethiopian region and the
  Horn’
• appreciate the positive contributions of the Sultanates to the Ethiopian socio-economic development of the medieval period;
• draw a map showing the location of the Sultanates of the Ethiopian region and the
  Horn;
• appreciate the role of trade and trade routes in linking the politically divergent
  states, principalities and peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
  

Brainstorming Questions

• What do you know about the Sultanates of Ifat and Adal?
• If there is a ruin that belonged to a Sultanate in your locality sometime in the past,
  tell something about it

Key terms and concepts

The emergence of Muslim Sultanates in the Ethiopian region was driven by the expansion of trade and the spread of Islam. Islam reached Ethiopia mainly through two routes: the Red Sea coast and the port of Zeyla on the Gulf of Aden. Muslim Arabs initially settled in the Dahlak Islands and along the Red Sea coast. However, Islam’s spread into the interior Ethiopian highlands was limited, with its influence primarily confined to the coastal regions due to geographical and logistical challenges.

The port of Zeyla on the Gulf of Aden was the key gateway for Islam’s spread into Ethiopia’s interior. Muslim merchants, both Arab and non-Arab, used trade routes leading to Zeyla to establish market centers where they engaged with local pastoral communities. Through these interactions, they gradually converted many locals to Islam. This process led to the peaceful introduction of Islam to regions such as Harar, Eastern Shewa, Wollo, Bale, and Arsi.

The spread of Islam and the expansion of long-distance trade resulted in the formation of several Muslim Sultanates along these trade routes, including Shewa, Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Darha, Bali, Hadya, Arababni, Sharkha, and Adal. These sultanates, with Shewa being the earliest, shared common features:

– Predominantly Muslim populations.

– Rulers who held both religious and political power.

– Emergence driven by Islam and trade.

– Predominant location in the southeastern lowlands of Ethiopia.

– Economies primarily reliant on trade, despite some mixed farming.

Each sultanate also developed its unique characteristics, with Arab writers like al-Ummeri and Christian literature providing insights into their internal histories.

Trade and Trade Routes

During the medieval period, Zeyla was the primary trade hub for both the Christian highland Kingdom and the Sultanates in the Ethiopian region. It was crucial for trade, alongside the northern Swahili city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca, as well as the port of Massawa. The Zeyla trade routes facilitated the rise and consolidation of various Sultanates and fostered significant socio-economic and cultural interactions among different ethnic groups in the Ethiopian region and the Horn. This network of trade routes also led to the development of major market towns and trade centers.

During much of the medieval period, the Zeyla trade was dominated by the Sultanates and their merchants. But kings of the Chrisian highland kingdom took part in the trade through their agents. The ambition to monopolize the Zeyla trade and the commodities that passed through Zeyla led the Sultanates and the Christian highland kingdom to a long period of rivalry and conflict.

The Socio-Economic and Political Conditions of Muslim Sultanates

The Sultanate of Ifat

The Sultanate of Ifat, emerging in the mid-13th century, was located in the lowlands east of the Shewan plateau and was initially ruled by Umar Walasma, from whom the ruling dynasty took its name. Ifat gained military and political prominence, including the incorporation of the Sultanate of Shewa in 1385. Its strategic position on the Zeyla trade routes allowed it to dominate regional trade and helped in the conversion of local communities to Islam, strengthening its power.

In the early 14th century, Ifat expanded its influence over neighboring Sultanates. However, its dominance waned with the aggressive territorial expansion of the Christian highland kingdom under King Amde Tsiyon. Sultan Sabr ad-Din of Ifat fought to maintain his state’s power but was ultimately defeated in 1332, leading to Ifat becoming a tributary state to the Christian kingdom.

The Sultanate of Hadya

Hadya was a medieval Sultanate in the Ethiopian region, first mentioned in the chronicle of King Amde Tsiyon. The exact founding date of Hadya is unknown. It was located in the western part of the Ethiopian region, with its western frontier touching the Gibe River. To the southwest, Hadya’s territory extended around the Gibe River; to the south, it reached Lake Hawasa; and to the north, it stretched slightly beyond Lake Ziway. The original inhabitants were the ancestors of the present Hadya ethnic group, and its rulers held the title of Garad. The economy was based on mixed farming, with some pastoralism and significant trade. Due to its rich natural resources, Hadya was targeted by the Christian highland kingdom for tributary status. In the 1330s, King Amde Tsiyon made Hadya a tributary, but Hadya frequently rebelled, leading to punitive expeditions by the Christian kings to maintain control. The Christian highland kingdom sought to secure Hadya’s loyalty through political marriages, including Queen Mother Elleni, who was from Hadya, and marriages of kings Be`ede Mariyam (r. 1468-78) and Libne Dingil (r. 1508-40) to Hadya princesses. Despite these efforts, Hadya continued to rebel. The last rebellion occurred during the reign of King Sertse Dingil (r. 1563-97), who eventually abandoned Hadya due to pressure from the expanding Macha Oromo.

Sultanate of Bali

The Sultanate of Bali, one of the medieval Sultanates in the Ethiopian region, was located in the southern part of the area, bordered by various other Sultanates. Its rulers, known as Garads, governed a population consisting of diverse ethnic groups. Bali was surrounded by Dawaro and Sharka to the north, Hadya to the west, and Adal to the east. The southern boundary of Bali is not well-documented. Bali is first mentioned in the chronicles of Christian kings starting with Amde Tsiyon and remained a tributary to the Christian highland kingdom until the 16th century.

Sultanate of Sharkha

Sharkha was a small Sultanate situated north of Bali and west of Dawaro, roughly aligning with present-day Arsi. It included early inhabitants such as groups of Oromo and ancestors of the Halaba ethnic group. The exact founding date of Sharkha is unknown, but it was a tributary state of the Christian highland kingdom from the reign of Amde Tsiyon. In the early 16th century, Sharkha came under the control of Imam Ahmad’s forces.

Sultanate of Dawaro

Dawaro was located south of Fatagar, bordered by Ifat to the north and extending south to the Wabi Shabale River, near Bali. The Sultanate roughly corresponds to present-day Arsi. It was inhabited by Oromo groups and ancestors of the Sidama ethnic group. The Dawro people trace their origins to this Sultanate. In the 16th century, due to conflicts with Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim al-Gahzi, the Dawro people migrated to the Omo River region.

Sultanate of Darha

Darha (or Dera) was a small Sultanate located east of the Awash River, nestled between the Sultanates of Dawaro and Bali. In the early 14th century, Bali briefly extended its control over Darha. However, as the Christian highland kingdom strengthened under King Amde Tsiyon, both Bali and Darha were reduced to tributary states. Darha was notably used by the Christian kings as a place of exile for disobedient monks, who were sent to live among the Muslim population as punishment.

Sultanate of Fatagar

Fatagar emerged around the mid-13th century along the Zeyla trade route, situated between Lake Ziway to the south and the Bishoftu area to the north, encompassing present-day Minjar, Shenkora, and Ada`a in Shewa. During King Amde Tsiyon’s reign, Fatagar became a tributary to the Christian highland kingdom and was later integrated as a province under direct Christian rule for nearly a century.

Sultanate of Arababni

Arababni was a small Sultanate located south of the Awash River, between Hadya and Dawaro. The primary source of information about Arababni comes from al-Ummeri, who mentioned its agricultural products, including cereals, legumes, and fruits.

Sultanate of Adal

The Sultanate of Adal was established by the Walasma rulers of Ifat towards the end of the 14th century. After Ifat was annexed by Amde Tsiyon in 1332 and became a tributary to the Christian highland kingdom, its ruling class split into two factions. The first faction, composed of merchants, accepted the Christian highland kingdom’s authority over Ifat. The second faction, the militant group, opposed this dominance and sought to restore Ifat’s independence. Haqq ad-Din II (r. 1363/64-87), a Walasma ruler, led a rebellion against Amde Tsiyon’s successors, Seyf Ar`ed (r. 1344-71) and Newaye Mariyam (r. 1371-80). Due to Ifat’s proximity to the Christian highland kingdom, the militants retreated to the southeastern lowlands of Harar, founding the Sultanate of Adal around 1380, initially centered at Dakar but later moved to Harar in 1520. Sa`ad ad-Din II (r. 1387-1403) also resisted Christian expansion under King Dawit I (r. 1380-1412). The Sultanate gained prominence under Sultan Ahmad Badlay, who successfully challenged King Zer`a Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68) but was defeated in 1445. By the second half of the 15th century, both Adal and the Christian highland kingdom experienced internal weaknesses. Adal rebounded in the early 16th century and, under Imam Ahmad, emerged as the dominant power in the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa.