Video Lesson

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• analyze the factors for the political transformation from the Gadaa governance to monarchical statehood among the Macha Oromo of Gibe Valley and Wallaga;
• trace on a sketch map of Ethiopia the location of the states in the western and eastern Ethiopia’
• appreciate the roles of indigenous institutions in the continuity of communities across centuries.

Brainstorming Questions

• Can you mention the medieval states whose name and legacy survives it?
• The ruins of which one of these things: palace, enclosure, fortification, or any other
  standing structure is found in or near your locality? What is its historical value?

Key terms and concepts

The Gibe and Leqa Oromo State

The Gibe States

The present day Gibe valley and Wallaga regions were occupied by the various sub groups
of the Macha Oromo in the course of the last quarter of the 16th and 17th centuries. Earlier
states of the regions like Bizamo, Ennarya, and Anfillo were faded away. Others like the
Shekka state came under the strong pressure of the Macha Oromo. The existing non-Oromo people of most of these states either left for other distant areas or assimilated with the Oromo.

By 1800, the Oromo in the Gibe Valley shifted from the Gadaa system to a monarchical system due to long-distance trade, the spread of Islam, and the rise of powerful war leaders (Abbaa Duulaa). These factors diminished the Gadaa system’s power, allowing wealthy military leaders to establish themselves as kings (Mootii) with permanent military forces.

Five Oromo monarchical states ruled by their own Mootii (king) emerged around the Gibe River. They were Limmu-Enarya, Jimma-kakka, Gera, Gomma, and Gumma. They are sometimes called the “Gibe Monarchies”. The Gibe states were located along the trade routes of which accounted for their rise and prosperity. The most important trade items originated from these states include ivory, musk, spices, precious skins, slaves, gold and coffee. Trade was conducted with the neighboring Omotic states as well as long-distance traders from northern Ethiopian region. Limu-Ennarya established around 1800 on the medieval Omotic kingdom of Ennarya by the Limmu branch of the Macha Oromo, Limu-Ennarya’s first king was Bofo (Abba Gomol I), named after his war horse. Its capital was Saqqa. The state grew powerful by controlling long-distance trade routes, reaching its peak under Ibsa (Abba Bagibo, r. 1825-1861).

Gumma formed around 1810 by the warrior Oncho Jilcha, Gumma was involved in conflicts with neighboring states, particularly Limu-Ennarya. Abba Manno (r. 1820-40) completed the state’s formation. Gumma was the first Gibe state to adopt Islam in the 1830s, using it to support the Abba Manno dynasty.

Jimma-Kakka established around 1830 by the warrior Sanna, also known as Abba Jiffar I, who was a skilled diplomat and warrior. Jimma-Kakka controlled trade routes and became a powerful kingdom, with Islam introduced by Muslim merchants. By the mid-19th century, it emerged as a strong rival to Limu-Ennarya, with its capital at Hirmata and known as Jimma-Abba Jiffar.

Finally, the state of Gera was founded by a famous warrior named Tullu Gunji about the middle of the 1830s. Tullu was a popular king, and fought against the states of Kafa, Gomma and Gumma. After his death, Abba Baso became the king of Gera. He ruled Gera until about 1838 when he was overthrown and exiled to Jimma by his brother, Abba Rago.
The Leeqaa States

In the present day Wallaga, east of the Didessa River, the Leeqaa group of the Macha Oromo underwent a similar socio-economic and political transformation. There were several Leeqaa Oromo groups. The two main groups – Leeqaa Naqamtee and Leeqaa Qellam – formed their own polities of the same name about the mid-19th century. Here, like the Gibe region, the authority of Gadaa officials was increasingly challenged by powerful Abbaa Dulaa. One of these Abbaa Duulaa was Bakaree Godana. He unified a number of Leeqaa families around Naqamtee and established an agriculturally resourceful polity. His base was at Wacha (the nucleus of Naqamtee). His son and successor, Moroda Bakaree (r. 1868-89), extended his family`s influence and power over the Leeqaa groups and even beyond to the Sibu group through a combination of war and diplomacy. He was succeeded by his son, Kumsa Moroda in 1889.
Similarly, to the south west of Leeqaa Naqamtee, Abbaa Duulaa Tulluu unified the Leeqaa Qellam Macha Oromo groups. Tulluu established a strong polity based on the rich agricultural resoures of the region and trans-frontier gold trade with the Sudan. Trade was also conducted with the neighbouring Sheikhdoms of Aqoldy (Assossa) and Benishangul. The dynasty was further consolidated by Tulluu`s son and successor, Dejjazmach Jootee Tulluu.

The Sheikhdoms and Peoples of Benishangul -Gumuz Region

The Benishangul (Berta) and Gumuz were the two indigenous inhabitants of the Benishangul-Gumuz region along the Ethio-Sudan border. During the 19th century, the Benishangul established three important Muslim Sheikhdoms along the Ethio-Sudanese border. They were Assossa (Aqoldi), Benishangul and Khomosha. The main factors for the rise of these Sheikhdoms were the influence of Islam from the the Sudan and trans-border trade. Theabundance of gold and other natural resources in the region attracted the invasions first by the Egyptians and then Mahadists of the Sudan. Likewise, in the Gumuz inhabited land of Metekkel another Sheikhdom called Gubba emerged in the 19th century.

Local Chiefs of Gambella Peoples

During the period before the mid-19th century, Gambella was the home to five ethnic groups. They are Nuer, Anywaa, Majang, Opuo and Komo. The Nuers have lived in both Sudan and Gambella since the 19th century.

The Anywaa, Opuo and Komo are settled agriculturalists. Fishing, gathering and hunting are their supplementary economic activities. The Nuer practiced pastoralism, which was the backbone of their economy, supplemented by crop production. Social status in the Nuer community was determined by the number of cattle owned. The Majang combine shifting cultivation with hunting and gathering.

The Anywaa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village was ruled by a Kwaari (village headman) and a Nyiye (noble). The population of each village, consisting of several hundred people was the largest political unit. Both are hereditary offices, and while
village headmen are from different lineage, nobles belong to a single royal lineage.

The Nuer political system lacked formal authorities to compel and bring social order. In the past, the Nuers were ruled by many types of spiritual leaders and ritual experts. Khor Muon in charge of peacemaking, Khor Touch in charge of issues on water, and Khor Tang in charge of war, were some of their spiritual leaders. The main responsibility of spiritual leaders was to advise people on their respective fields of specialization.

Eastern States

Harar

Harar, a powerful center of the Walasma Sultans of Adal during the 15th and 16th centuries, was fortified by Emir Nur ibn al-Wazir with the Jugol wall in 1552-53 for protection. The wall was later recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006. Due to pressure from the advancing Barantu Oromo, the Sultans of Adal moved their political center from Harar to Aussa in 1577.

The Emirs of Harar continued to pay tribute to the Sultans of Aussa until the mid-17th century, when the local Harari dynasty, founded by Emir Ali Dawud (r. 1647-1662), declared independence. Under this dynasty, Harar emerged as a major trade hub between the Northern Somali ports and the Ethiopian interior. It minted its own coin as early as the 17th century and thrived due to its strategic location and control over key trade routes, making it a prosperous Emirate for the next two centuries.

The commerce of Harar brought about economic interaction between the Harari, the Oromo, Somali, Afar and other peoples of the region. Economic interdependence facilitated
the closer and peaceful interaction among the peoples. The Oromo in the fertile territories surrounding the walled city of Harar produced grain, varieties of fruits and vegetables.

The Harari possessed well developed handicrafts. The Somali and Afar also brought animals to Harar for exchange. Economic links, marriage relations, and above all, Islam served as the main factors of interdependence and integration particularly among the Harari, the Oromo,
Somali and Afar of the region. Harar was an important center of Islamic learning and culture. A number of mosques were built in the city. The Grand Mosque and the palace of the Emir were the most important standing structures in the city. There were also a number of religious shrines in the city dating back probably as far as the 10th century.

The Emirate of Harar maintained economic and political ties with Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula via Zeyla and Berbera, hosting a diverse population including Arabs, Persians, Turks, Armenians, and Greeks. However, the Emirs were wary of Europeans, often imprisoning or executing them. Only Richard Burton, posing as an Arab, managed to stay in Harar for ten days in 1855, revealing the city’s wealth and strategic significance. This disclosure led to the Egyptian occupation of Harar from 1875 to 1885 under Mohammad Rauf Pasha.

The Harari Afocha is a traditional self-help association crucial for cooperation and maintaining peace through customary mediation. It consists of two gender-specific branches: Aboch for men and Endoch for women, each with distinct functions. Afocha promotes egalitarian values and social solidarity, helping to manage class conflicts. This system is now also adopted by other local groups, including the Oromo.

Afar: Aussa, Bidu, Gobaad, Tajura and Rahayito

The Afars are one of the Cushitic language speaking ancient peoples of Ethiopia. Economically, the Afars were basically pastoralists. Trade in the Afar Depression on the trade routes
leading to and from Bati was carried out mainly by women who brought goods to the markets. Usually, the men stayed at home to safeguard the family and property.

During the medieval period the Afar were under the influence of the Sultanate of Ifat. Later, with the transfer of the seat of Walasma Sultans of Adal into Aussa in 1577, four main Afar Sultanates emerged. They were Tajura, Rahayito, Aussa and Goba’ad. But the central political entity of the Afar was the Imamate of Aussa in the middle of the Awash. It was considered to be the leading state of the Afar people, to whom the rulers of other Afar Sultanates nominally acknowledged primacy. Tajura was strategically located and was a very important economic center of the Afar people. With the revival of long distance trade in the 19th century, slaves, ivory, gold, wheat, durra, honey, civet, ostrich feathers and the like were exported through the port of Tajura.

The Afar had an indigenous court system known as Makabonto (council of judge). The Makaban (singular) is a leader who knows the customs of Afar people. The number of judges varies (1-10 judges) according to the weight of the case.

The Somali People

The Somali people mainly inhabit the Ogaden region of Ethiopia covering the greater part of the present-day Somali National Regional State. The Somali language belongs to the Eastern Lowland Cushitic language family. The majority of the Somalis were pastoralists, while others were settled agricultural communities and traders. The Somali tradition attributes the origin of the term Ogaden to the Somali sub-group of the same name. The
exact time at which the Somalis settled in the Ogaden is not clearly known. But historical evidences show that in its early history, the Ogaden was inhabited by a now extinct people called Harla. The Harla were related to both the Harari and the Somali peoples. There areruins of their stone built houses at several places in the Ogaden and other areas of the region. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, the Ogaden region was under the influence of the Sultanates of Ifat and later Adal. By the beginning of the 16th century, all the Somali had already adopted Islam through Muslim merchants who settled around market places of the region. Troops conscripted from among the Somalis by Imam Ahmad, played significant
roles in his fight against the Christian highland kingdom. Many of their sub-groups have also intermarried with the Oromo.

In the Somali Regional State, various sub-groups such as Darod, Isaaq, Gadaabuursi, Issa, Massare, Degodia, Jidle, and Karanle Hawiye coexist. Traditionally, Somali governance was centered around councils of elders called Shir, which handled criminal and civil cases at various levels. These councils managed a broad range of affairs including resource allocation, marriage, trade, and crime. All adult male members of the sub-groups participated in the decision-making processes of these councils.