Video Lesson

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• identify the long-term and short-term causes of the French revolution;
• establish a brief account of the course of the revolution;
• appreciate the positive outcomes of the French Revolution;
• assess the reforms introduced during the course of the revolution.

Brainstorming Questions

• What did the French Revolution look like as a movement?
• What do you think are the reasons that prompt people to make a revolution?
• What do the terms liberty, equality, and fraternity mean to you?

Key terms and concepts

In the 18th century, Europe was largely governed by the Old Regime (Ancient Régime), where France was ruled by an absolute monarchy with unchecked power. French society was divided into three estates: the privileged classes, consisting of the First Estate (high-ranking Catholic clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility), who enjoyed tax exemptions and favorable treatment; and the Third Estate, which included peasants, artisans, city workers, and wealthy bourgeoisie merchants. The Third Estate, though the largest and most diverse, was unprivileged, burdened with taxes, and treated poorly compared to the privileged classes.

Under the Old Regime, France’s economy was predominantly agricultural, with peasant farmers shouldering the burden of taxation. Poor harvests exacerbated their difficulties in paying regular taxes. The wealthier bourgeoisie were frustrated by paying taxes while the nobility enjoyed exemptions. King Louis XVI’s extravagant spending on himself and his residences, like Versailles, alongside Queen Marie Antoinette’s perceived wastefulness, further strained the economy. Additionally, funding wars, including the American Revolution, and persistent deficit spending—where the government spent more than it collected in taxes—severely damaged France’s finances. The privileged classes’ refusal to accept taxation worsened the fiscal crisis.

The French Revolution drew heavily on the intellectual movement of the Enlightenment, which was also known as the Age of Reason. Philosophes were secular in thinking-they used reason and logic, rather than faith, religion, and superstition, to answer important questions. They applied reason and logic to determine how governments are formed; they tried to figure out what logical, rational principles work to tie people to their governments. Again, they questioned the divine right of kings.

Long-term causes of the French Revolution:

– Absolutism:Absolute monarchy without constitutional limits.

– Unjust socio-political system (Old Regime): Division into privileged and unprivileged classes.

– Poor harvests: Led to financial strain on peasant farmers.

– Influence of Enlightenment philosophes: Ideas about democracy and equality.

– System of mercantilism: Restricted trade and economic growth.

– Influence of other successful revolutions: Examples like England’s Glorious Revolution and the American Revolution.

Short-term causes of the French Revolution:

– Bankruptcy caused by deficit spending: Excessive government spending beyond tax revenues.

– Great Fear: Widespread panic and rumors among peasants.

– Worst famine in memory: Severe food shortages exacerbating hardship.

– Hungry, impoverished peasants’ fears: Belief that nobles at the Estates-General sought more privileges.

– Estates-General: Unprecedented meeting of all three estates since 1614.

In the winter of 1788/’89, preparations for the Estates General included electing representatives. On May 5, 1789, the Estates General convened, with each estate receiving one vote. The First and Second Estates united to vote against the Third Estate’s proposals. Representatives of the Third Estate demanded voting by population to secure a majority. Disagreement over this voting method led to a deadlock. The Third Estate, feeling excluded, declared itself the National Assembly. When Louis XVI locked them out of the meeting, the members relocated to a nearby tennis court and took the Tennis Court Oath, vowing to remain united until they had drafted a constitution for France. As tensions escalated, Louis XVI capitulated on June 23, 1789, and ordered the three estates to meet together as the National Assembly and vote by population on a constitution. The French Revolution then unfolded in four phases: the National Assembly (1789-1791), the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792), the Convention (1792-1795), and the Directory (1795-1799).

In the first phase of the revolution, Louis XVI opposed a written constitution. When news of his plan to use military force against the National Assembly reached Paris on July 14, 1789, the people stormed the Bastille, a symbol of French tyranny. They seized weapons and organized their own government, the Commune. As uprisings spread across France, nobles were attacked, records of feudal dues were destroyed, and many nobles fled, becoming émigrés. Louis XVI was forced to adopt the new tricolor flag, and the Commune feared foreign intervention due to Marie Antoinette’s connection to the Austrian emperor.

A group of women attacked Versailles (October 5, 1789):, compelling the royal family and the National Assembly to move to Paris. They spent years as prisoners in the Tuileries Palace. During this time, significant reforms were implemented, including the abolition of guilds and special privileges, the 1791 Constitution, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. These reforms introduced equality before the law for men, reformed local government, and instituted taxes based on ability to pay.

Declaration of the Rights of Man included rights such as freedom of religion, speech, and press, property rights, and principles of “liberty, equality, fraternity.” It established the right to create laws and to a fair trial. Women’s rights activists like Olympe de Gouges and Madame Jeanne Roland argued for gender equality and influenced reforms, but changes benefiting women were primarily aimed at weakening feudalism and church control rather than liberating women. Women gained rights like property inheritance and easier divorce, but these reforms had broader social and political motives.

The other important reform includes; the abolition of special privileges and the seizure and sale of church lands to peasants. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy mandated that church officials be elected by the people and receive government salaries, leading many to flee rather than comply. Feudal dues and tithes were abolished, and the privileges of the First and Second Estates were eliminated.

The 1791 constitution established the Legislative Assembly, which governed from 1791 to 1792. During this period, the royal family attempted to flee to Austria in June 1791 but was apprehended. Nobles who had fled hoped for foreign intervention to restore the Old Regime, while some Church officials and devout Catholic peasants sought the restoration of Church lands and privileges. Political factions, including the Girondists and Jacobins, began to emerge, each representing different interests. The constitution of 1791 had both democratic and undemocratic features. The democratic features include France became a limited monarchy (King became merely the head of state), all laws were created by the Legislative Assembly, and feudalism was abolished. The undemocratic features include voting was limited to taxpayers and offices were reserved for property owners.

Opposition to the new French government came from abroad as European monarchs feared the revolution might spread. This led to an invasion of France by Austrian and Prussian troops. In Paris, the Commune, led by Jacobin Danton, seized control. Voters elected representatives to draft a republican constitution. A republic is a government where elected representatives create laws and govern. Concurrently, thousands of nobles were executed due to suspicions of their involvement in the foreign invasion.

In 1792, the Convention, the new government, established the first French Republic. This government faced significant internal and external challenges. Internally, the Convention was divided between the Girondists, who represented the wealthy middle class, and the Jacobins, who represented workers and were led by figures such as Marat, Danton, and Robespierre. Externally, the republic confronted opposition from a coalition of monarchies including Austria, England, Holland, Prussia, Sardinia, and Spain, which sought to invade France. Due to these pressures, the Convention abolished the monarchy, fearing its restoration while the royal family was alive. King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were tried and executed by guillotine, with Louis XVI’s execution occurring on January 21, 1793, and Marie Antoinette’s on October 16, 1793.

As the coalition against France grew, the Convention drafted men into the army, and the national anthem, “Marseillaise,” written by Rouget de Lisle, inspired the troops. After two years of fighting, the external coalition was defeated, and France even gained territory. However, domestically, the Convention faced severe issues. The Reign of Terror (September 5, 1793 – July 27, 1794) brought massive destruction and loss of life. Dominated by the Jacobins under Danton and later Robespierre, the Committee of Public Safety arrested and tried accused traitors, resulting in about 15,000 executions by guillotine, which earned the nickname “National Razor.”

Members of the Girondist party sought to end the Reign of Terror led by the Jacobins, leading to the trial and execution of many Girondists for treason. Even George Danton, who initially supported the Reign of Terror, was executed when he tried to halt the executions. Maximilien Robespierre, who succeeded Danton, continued the Terror until he was blamed by the Convention. On July 27, 1794, Robespierre and his allies were arrested, and Robespierre was guillotined on July 28, 1794, ending the Reign of Terror. With foreign threats subdued and the Terror over, the Convention introduced the Constitution of Year III (1795), establishing the Directory government with five directors appointed by the Legislature. This constitution, favoring the Girondists, restricted voting and office-holding rights to property owners.

During the Convention, several important reforms were introduced: the metric system was adopted, feudalism was further dismantled by abolishing primogeniture (the practice of inheritance by the eldest son), a comprehensive legal system was established, and debt imprisonment and slavery in French colonies were ended. The Convention also set up a nationwide public education system. However, the subsequent Directory (1795-1799) faced corruption and poor administration, leading to widespread dissatisfaction among the French people. Despite these challenges, a strong sense of nationalism emerged, bolstered by military successes, marking a significant period in the aftermath of the French Revolution.