Video Lessson

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• mention the underlying factor for the rivalry and continued conflict between the
  sultanate of Adal and the Christian highland kingdom;
• analyze how Adal got supremacy in the Ethiopian region and the Horn;
• appreciate traditional conflict resolution skills of the time’
• analyze the reason why Ottoman Turkey and Portugal involved in the internal
  conflict between Adal and the Christian highland kingdom.

Brainstorming Questions

• What type of image do people in your locality have about Imam Ahmad (Gragn)?
• Were there mechanisms to solve conflicts before going to war between Adal and the
Christian highland kingdom?

Key terms and concepts

In the latter half of the 15th century, the Sultanate of Adal was embroiled in civil war, causing a significant power shift from the sultans to the Emirs (Amirs) and Imams. This internal strife resulted in frequent changes in leadership among the Imams. During the final decades of the century, Emir Mahfuz emerged as a powerful ruler, fortifying Adal and initiating attacks on the Christian highland Kingdoms, particularly against Kings Eskindir (1478-1494) and Na`od (1494-1508). Mahfuz was killed by the forces of King Libne Dingil (1508-1540) in a battle at Zeyla in 1517. His death led to further power struggles among the Emirs. By the early 1520s, leadership in Adal shifted to Imam Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim al-Ghazi, also known as Gragn (“the left-handed”) in the Christian highlands. Ahmad, whose precise family background is unclear but is claimed to be from the Balaw clan in Hubat near present-day Babile, had been a cavalry officer under Mahfuz and was married to Mahfuz’s daughter, Bati Dil Wambara.

Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim al-Ghazi, known for his energetic and tactful leadership, first eliminated his internal rivals to become the Imam of Adal. He then worked to stabilize the region by reconciling the warring Afar, Somali, and Harari communities, who had previously clashed over the fertile highland areas of Adal and the movement of pastoral communities. Ahmad’s efforts to restore peace enabled him to build a strong army. His campaign against the Christian highland kingdom, beginning in 1527, was not driven by religious motives but was the culmination of earlier conflicts over trade control and independence from the Christian highland kingdom. Ahmad attacked the Christian forces in Dawaro, Fatagar, and Bali, and returned to Adal with significant spoils. In response, King Libne Dingil ordered a campaign against Adal, but his governor Degelhan was defeated. Ahmad’s subsequent successes in the highlands bolstered his confidence, setting the stage for a larger and more conventional conflict with the Christian highland kingdom.

In March 1529, Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim al-Ghazi achieved a significant victory over King Libne Dingil at the Battle of Shimbra Kure, despite his smaller but better-equipped army, which included Yemeni musketeers from the Ottoman Sultan. Following this victory, Ahmad returned to Harar to recruit more troops while the Imperial army retreated northward. Ahmad’s goal was to establish an Islamic empire in the Horn of Africa, and by 1531, he successfully annexed Dawaro and Bali. He continued his aggressive campaign, controlling much of the southern Ethiopian region and establishing command centers at Debre Birhan, Wajj, and Dawaro. Wolaita was the only state to resist his advances. From mid-1533 to 1535, Ahmad extended his control to the Northern provinces, including Tigray and areas adjacent to the Red Sea, making Aksum his center. By 1535, he had established his rule from Dembiya near Lake Tana. Ahmad’s dominance lasted until his defeat and death at the Battle of Woyna Dega in 1543.

The Involvement of the Portuguese and Ottoman Turks

The conflict between Adal and the Christian highland Kingdom drew in both the Portuguese and Ottoman Turks, who were competing for dominance in the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions. In 1520, the Portuguese mission to Ethiopia included João Bermudez, who remained in the country after the mission departed in 1526. In 1535, as Imam Ahmad was consolidating control over the Ethiopian region, King Libne Dingil sent a plea for military aid to the Pope and the King of Portugal via Bermudez.

Several years later, in 1541, Bermudez returned with 400 Portuguese soldiers led by Christovao da Gama. However, by this time, Libne Dingil had died and was succeeded by his son, King Gelawdewos (r. 1540-59). The Portuguese forces, entering Ethiopia via Massawa, faced resistance from Adal’s army in eastern Tigray and were forced to retreat to the Red Sea coast.

 Imam Ahmad attempted to block the Portuguese from joining Gelawdewos by relocating his command center to Deresge in Semien and attacking the Portuguese in Saharti. Despite his efforts, the Portuguese, aided by cannons, defeated Ahmad’s army. Ahmad was wounded and retreated further south. The Portuguese then advanced south of Lake Ashange, awaiting Gelawdewos. Imam Ahmad sought Ottoman support, and the Ottomans promptly sent 900 troops armed with muskets and cannons. Ahmad’s forces defeated the Portuguese in Wefla, capturing and killing their commander, Christopher da Gama. The Portuguese retreated, joining Gelawdewos by late 1542.

However, Ahmad made a strategic error by sending most Ottoman musketeers back to their homeland and overstretching his army. In February 1543, Gelawdewos and the Portuguese forces defeated Ahmad’s army at the Battle of Woyna Dega in Dembiya. Ahmad was killed, and the brief period of Adal’s dominance ended. The conflict between the Christian highland kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal persisted until 1559, when Emir Nur al-Wazir of Adal defeated King Gelawdewos, who was killed in battle.

Consequences of the Conflict

The two-decade conflict between the Sultanate of Adal and the Christian highland kingdom had significant consequences:

1. Destruction and Loss of Life: The conflict resulted in extensive material destruction and significant loss of life. Churches and monasteries across the Christian highland kingdom were looted and burned, destroying invaluable religious documents and relics. The warfare led to a severe reduction in the population in both highland and lowland areas due to the high number of casualties.

2. Weakened Christian Highland Kingdom: The continuous warfare undermined the power of the Christian highland kingdom. The once formidable imperial armies were dismantled, particularly those stationed in tributary provinces. This weakened the central authority and allowed regional lords to challenge the monarchy’s control. The Christian highland kingdom struggled to restore its former power and authority.

3. Population Movements: The conflict prompted significant population movements as people relocated to avoid the fighting. This led to the intermixing of different ethnic and religious groups. For example, Muslim lowlanders moved permanently to the highlands, contributing to increased ethnic and religious diversity in the region.

4. Disruption of Trade: The conflict severely disrupted the Zeyla trade routes, making them increasingly unsafe for caravan merchants. Although some trade resumed through the port of Zeyla, it did not fully recover until the 1560s.