Video Lesson

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

• list down the main features of the period;
• realize how the period was one of the major causes to Ethiopia’s backwardness;
• refrain from activities that would lead to conflicts and wars.

Brainstorming Questions

• What is your attitude towards conflicts and wars? Good or bad? Why?
• How do you measure the destructive nature of war?

Key terms and concepts

The Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Warlords) in Ethiopia, lasting from 1769 to 1855, was marked by a significant weakening of central authority and a rise in the power of regional warlords. During this period, Ethiopia was divided into various regions, each controlled by local nobility engaged in intense power struggles. The era was characterized by lawlessness, disorder, and a lack of peace, leading to widespread arbitrariness and disruption in the country.

The conditions leading to the Zemene Mesafint  (Era of the Warlords) developed over time due to the erosion of monarchical power, which began with the wars of Imam Ahmad. Before these wars, kings like Amde Tsiyon and Zera Ya’ekob were known for their successful military campaigns and extensive empire. However, this positive image began to decline with Libne Dingil, who lived in exile for over a decade and died in 1540. His successor, Gelawdewos, was killed by Adal forces led by Emir Nur ibn al-Wazir in 1559. Subsequent kings also suffered defeats against the expanding Oromo, further weakening the monarchy. The establishment of Gondar as a permanent capital contributed to the erosion of traditional monarchical power. Prior to Gondar, kings lived in mobile capitals, moving with their army and ensuring the loyalty of regional lords. However, once Gondar became the fixed capital, kings stayed there for extended periods, neglecting the provinces. This allowed regional lords, like Welde Sillassie of Tigray and the rulers of Shewa, to strengthen their own power and even make it hereditary. These lords began to defy the central authority of the kings.

During the Zemene Mesafint, the kings of Gondar lost their traditional power and authority. The last king with notable power was Tekle Giyorgis, who was enthroned and dethroned six times between 1789 and 1800, earning the nickname Fitsame Mengist (the end of the kingdom). His successors became mere puppets of regional governors and warlords. The kings’ lives were confined to Gondar’s castles, with limited income from customs, fines, and charity. For example, in 1832, the king’s annual income was 300 Maria Theresa Thalers. In contrast, regional lords like Ras Welde Sellassie of Tigray had an annual income of 75,000 Thalers in 1816, and King Sahle Sellassie of Shewa had 85,000 Thalers in 1840.

In short, the kings lived in poverty without any power or authority. The actual rulers of the Christian kingdom were regional governors, the Rases and Dejjazmaches of the various provinces. They maintained their own army and kept the tribute and revenues of their provinces. Nevertheless, even the regional lords were not secure and did not retain power for long. The decisive factors in securing regional power for long and on tending for more power were popularity in the eyes of their army and their connection with other powerful families who might come to their assistance in times of political difficulty.

During the Zemene Mesafint, the Rasbitwededs, or prime ministers, held the power to appoint and dismiss kings, becoming the true power brokers. Regional lords vied for the Rasbitweded position by expanding their domains and increasing their power, leading to widespread civil wars. This struggle was intensified by religious doctrinal disputes within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which hampered its ability to unify the country under a central government.

After Ras Welde Leul’s death, Ras Micha’el Sehul of Tigray initially held the position of Rasbitweded but lost it in the early 1770s. The Yejju Oromo then dominated this role, establishing the Yejju or Werre Sheh dynasty in 1786. The first Yejju Oromo Rasbitweded was Ali Gwangul, also known as Ali I. He was succeeded by six family members, including prominent figures Ras Gugsa and Ras Ali Alula (Ras Ali II). This led to Yejju Oromo hegemony over Gondar and the central regions from their base at Debre Tabor. The kingdom further fragmented into political units: Tigray in the north; Simien, Dembiya, Begemdir, Lasta, Amhara, Yejju, and Wollo in the center; and Gojjam and Shewa in the south. The status of these units varied based on their resources and the power of their regional lords.

The political disintegration had its own impact on foreign relations. The most powerful regions conducted their own foreign affairs independently of Gondar. One such region was Tigray, which made use of the port of Massawa for its external dealings. The Tigrian lords did not allow foreign envoys to proceed beyond their domain. Such envoys often departed with the conviction that the Tigrian lords were the kings of the Christian highland kingdom. Similarly, Shewa conducted its own foreign relations via Aussa and Tajura independently.

On the other hand, Ethiopia faced a significant foreign threat from Egypt, which began expanding into Sudan under Muhammad Ali starting in 1821. This expansion threatened Ethiopia’s western frontiers. The Egyptian encroachment coincided with Ethiopia’s internal crises, including economic, political, and religious turmoil. Local leaders such as Dejjazmach Wube of Semien, Dejjazmach Kinfu, and Kasa Hailu (later Emperor Tewodros II) spearheaded resistance against the Egyptians. However, the threat intensified after the decline of the era of the princes.

The immediate consequences of the political disorder of the period mainly affected the lives of the peasantry.. They were conscripted into endless conflicts between regional lords, and their produce was often seized by regional armies. Many peasants abandoned their farms, turning to banditry, while merchants faced disruptions in trade due to robbery and multiple taxation at customs posts. Handicraft industries also suffered. The continuous wars led to a decline in agricultural production, stagnation in trade, and the collapse of traditional crafts, contributing to widespread impoverishment and overall backwardness in the affected regions.

The Zemene Mesafint ended in 1855 with Emperor Tewodros II initiating the restoration of central authority. Tewodros, originally Kasa Hailu, began his rise as a bandit in Quara, Dembiya. He defeated major regional lords in four key battles: Dejjazmach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba (November 1852), four vassals of Ras Ali II at Gorgora Bichen (April 1853), Ras Ali II himself at Ayshal (June 1853), and Dejjazmach Wube of Tigray and Semien at Deresge (1855). That same year, Kasa Hailu was crowned Emperor Tewodros II at Deresge Mariyam Church. Tewodros II’s reign marked the beginning of efforts to reestablish strong central authority in Ethiopia.