In the 15th century, the Portuguese, under Prince Henry the Navigator, began exploring Africa to access gold-rich areas directly, bypassing Arab and Turkish trade routes. They established footholds along the Mediterranean coast, occupying Ceuta (1415) and later Madeira, the Azores, and Cape Verde. Both Portugal and Spain took control of key locations, with Portugal’s expansion into Morocco ending in defeat at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578. Portuguese explorers navigated the western coast of Africa from Tangier to the Cape of Good Hope and reached the Swahili coast by the late 15th century, facilitating direct access to Far Eastern trade. They set up trading posts on the Senegal coast (1446) and established sugar plantations on Atlantic islands using enslaved labor.

In 1482, Diogo Cão claimed the Congo River area for Portugal and allied with the Ndongo kingdom, naming the region Angola. Portuguese settlement efforts in Ndongo (1580-1670) led to the kingdom’s breakup, but Queen Nzinga Mbande successfully resisted colonization until her death in 1663. The Kingdom of Kongo, allied with Portugal around 1482, saw significant Portuguese influence under Afonso I (1507-42/43). However, after a Portuguese invasion in 1665, Kongo’s independence ended, and the kingdom collapsed by the late 17th century due to internal unrest and invasions.

Vasco da Gama’s voyage (1497-98) to East Africa and India highlighted the wealth of Swahili cities, which Portugal subsequently captured, disrupting their trade. Portuguese attempts to control Zimbabwe’s gold mines failed, but they were more successful in Mwene Mutapa, gaining influence and control until expelled by the Rozwi in 1693 and by Omani Arabs from East African ports by the late 17th century.