The transition from the Trans-Atlantic slave trade to the “legitimate trade” spurred European interest in Africa’s rivers as key trade routes for accessing raw materials and new markets. The formation of the African Association in 1788 aimed to explore Timbuktu and the Niger River. Notable explorers like Richard Burton, John Hanning Speke, and James Grant mapped the White Nile, while David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley further explored Africa’s rivers, laying groundwork for European colonial control.

By the 1860s, the French and British established footholds in West Africa, with the French colonizing the Senegal River and the British securing the Gold Coast after military victories. European explorations were driven by commercial interests and a desire to control Africa’s resources. European exploration faced challenges due to high mortality from malaria until quinine became available in the 1850s, which accelerated exploration. Europeans focused on mapping major African rivers to use them as trade routes and facilitate exploitation.

European missionaries, including those from British, French, German, Dutch, and American organizations, were active in Africa, particularly in West and Southern Africa. Missionaries often provided technical assistance and acted as advisers, but by the late 19th century, their progress was slow, prompting appeals for government intervention to support missionary work. Missionaries played a significant role in advancing European colonialism. In the late 19th century, they sought government protection amid local conflicts, leading to political and military support from European governments. For example, German missionaries in Namibia secured protection leading to a German protectorate, while British missionaries in Uganda helped establish a British protectorate through financial and military support.