The Industrial Revolution, starting in mid-18th century England, marked a shift from handcraft to machine-based production, revolutionizing industries like textiles and transportation. This transformation spread to Europe and North America, fueled by England’s large workforce, natural resources, and political stability. Key innovations, such as the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, and steam engine, boosted production and transportation. Despite these advances, industrialization led to poor working conditions, pollution, and rising class tensions. The period saw the rise of a new middle class and significant urbanization. While laissez-faire economics favored minimal government intervention, some scholars, like Karl Marx, argued for socialism to address inequality and improve workers’ conditions.