As the European slave trade declined, West Africa became a key source for new exports, including gum Arabic, groundnuts, and palm oil. Palm oil, in particular, became a major export, used as a lubricant for industrial machinery. However, the “legitimate trade” primarily benefited a small elite of rulers and merchants, without significantly improving the broader population’s economic situation. European imports like cloth, alcohol, and firearms did not enhance African economies. European traders increasingly sought to control West Africa’s internal trade, contributing to the ‘Scramble for Africa’ in the late 19th century.

The Dutch East India Company established a settlement at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652 to support European ships, including a military fortress for protection. In 1657, the company encouraged soldiers to become farmers (Boers) and used West African slaves for labor. Boer expansion led to conflicts with the Khoisan, culminating in wars that resulted in significant Khoisan losses and Dutch control over their lands. By 1700, the white population was growing, with a substantial slave labor force from Madagascar, Mozambique, and Indonesia. Boer expansion into Zulu lands and the British takeover in 1795 led to the “Great Trek” and the creation of Boer colonies. The discovery of minerals in the 1860s increased white settlement, and by the end of the 19th century, Britain controlled all four Boer colonies. The settlers occupied fertile land, pushing indigenous populations into less productive areas and creating a labor reserve for the settler economy.