Napoleon Bonaparte, of Italian descent and a military genius, rose to power in France on December 25, 1799, under a new constitution granting him supreme authority. His rule, known as the Consulate period (1799-1804), was marked by his absolute control and efforts to centralize and reform France. His most enduring legacy, the Napoleonic Code, provided a unified legal framework that upheld principles such as legal equality, property rights, and secularism, while consolidating the achievements of the French Revolution. However, his rule also had notable drawbacks, including the repression of individual liberties, the subversion of republicanism, and significant suffering from his wars.

During the Empire period (1804-1814), Napoleon expanded his influence across Europe but faced growing opposition. His attempt to invade Britain and subsequent conflicts led to a coalition of European powers uniting against him. Key defeats, including the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 and Waterloo in 1815, ultimately led to his abdication and exile to St. Helena. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) sought to restore order by reinstating deposed ruling families and rebalancing power. Despite his significant achievements, Napoleon’s rule also resulted in widespread repression and suffering, highlighting the complexities of his impact on Europe.