In the 19th century, the Gibe Valley and Wallaga regions saw the emergence of five Oromo monarchical states, driven by long-distance trade, the spread of Islam, and powerful war leaders. Meanwhile, the Leeqaa Oromo established two major polities in Wallaga, and the Benishangul-Gumuz region saw the rise of Muslim Sheikhdoms due to trade and resource wealth, with invasions by external forces like the Egyptians and Mahdists further shaping the area’s political landscape.

Before the mid-19th century, Gambella was inhabited by five ethnic groups—Nuer, Anywaa, Majang, Opuo, and Komo—each with distinct economic and social systems, including settled agriculture for the Anywaa, pastoralism for the Nuer, and shifting cultivation for the Majang. The Anywaa had a hereditary administrative system with village headmen and nobles, while the Nuer relied on spiritual leaders for social order and peacemaking.

Harar, fortified with the Jugol wall by Emir Nur ibn al-Wazir in the 16th century, became a major trade hub under Emir Ali Dawud and was known for its Islamic culture and economic ties with Yemen. Despite its wariness of Europeans, Richard Burton’s visit in 1855 led to Egyptian occupation. The traditional Harari Afocha, a self-help association, remains in use today.

The Afar, pastoralists speaking Cushitic languages, were influenced by the Sultanates of Ifat and Adal. By the 16th century, they had four main Sultanates: Tajura, Rahayito, Aussa, and Goba’ad, with Aussa as the central authority. Tajura was a key economic center, and the Afar used the Makabonto court system.

Somali people in the Ogaden region are primarily pastoralists and traders, speaking an Eastern Lowland Cushitic language. They adopted Islam by the 16th century and were governed by councils of elders called Shir.