The Zagwe Dynasty, emerging around 1150 AD from the Agaw ruling class in Lasta within the Aksumite Empire, marked a pivotal political transition rather than the establishment of a new kingdom. Founded by Mera Tekle Haymnot, the dynasty’s capital was initially set at Adefa, later known as Lalibela, which is famed for its monolithic rock-hewn churches, central to Christian culture and education in Ethiopia. The economy of the Zagwe Dynasty was primarily agricultural, complemented by trade through the port of Zeila and the Dahlak Islands. However, the dynasty faced significant challenges leading to its decline, including internal succession struggles, opposition from Tigray and Amhara regions, and the eventual defeat of the last Zagwe king, Yetbarek, by Yekuno Amlak in 1270 AD, who claimed descent from the last Aksumite king and established the Solomonic dynasty.

The Sultanate of Shewa arose in the 8th century amid the spread of Islam in the Horn of Africa, becoming one of the first Muslim states by the 9th century. Its establishment was spurred by shifts in trade dynamics, with the decline of northern Ethiopian trade channels and the rise of Zeila as a crucial port facilitating Islamic expansion. Founded in 896 AD by leaders of the Makhzunmite clan, Shewa struggled with internal power disputes that ultimately contributed to its decline. The emergence of the Sultanate of Ifat in 1285, led by Umar Walasma, marked a significant shift in regional power, as Ifat controlled lucrative trade routes and challenged the Christian highland states, especially after Yekuno Amlak’s ascent. This rivalry over trade routes not only shaped the political landscape but also intensified conflicts between the Christian and Muslim states in the region.