The Middle Ages in Asia saw the emergence and expansion of Islam, which originated in the Arabian Peninsula through the teachings of Prophet Muhammad around 610 AD. Facing initial opposition from the Quraysh tribe, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 622 AD, an event known as the Hijra that marks the start of the Islamic calendar. Following Muhammad’s death, Islam rapidly transformed the socio-political landscape of the Near and Middle East, leading to the rise of powerful caliphates such as the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The expansion continued through military conquests by groups like the Seljuk and Ottoman Turks, who spread Islam into new territories across Palestine, Asia Minor, and beyond.

In parallel, the Ottoman Empire emerged from the earlier Seljuk Turks, beginning their military expansion around 1040 AD and solidifying their power by capturing key regions like Anatolia and the Balkans. A pivotal moment came in 1453 when the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, renaming it Istanbul and establishing it as their capital. The empire’s military strength was bolstered by elite janissary troops, while its society was structured into distinct classes including the Sultan and bureaucrats. This period also coincided with China’s dynastic cycles, where the rise and fall of dynasties, governed by the concept of the “Mandate of Heaven,” shaped the course of Chinese history until the Qing dynasty’s collapse in the early 20th century.