The “Dark Age,” spanning from 500 to 1000 AD, marks a significant decline in civilization in Western Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. This era saw internal decay and external invasions by various groups, including Germanic tribes like the Anglo-Saxons and Franks, as well as Asiatic tribes such as the Huns and Magyars. The consequences included a weakening of Greco-Roman cultural and societal structures, a shift from urban to predominantly rural societies, and the rise of feudalism as a new socio-economic and political order. Bishops and monks played essential roles in record-keeping during this period, while knights began to adopt codes of chivalry despite ongoing conflicts among rulers.

The subsequent feudal society, which emerged as Western Europe fragmented, was characterized by a hierarchical structure involving kings, nobles, knights, and the clergy. This system relied on vassalage, where higher lords granted land (fiefs) to lower lords in exchange for military service. Manors became the basic units of this society, with manorial lords exercising significant power over peasants. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire continued to thrive, maintaining its capital at Constantinople and developing a unique cultural identity. The Orthodox Church became a national institution, supporting the emperor and distinguishing itself from the Roman Catholic Church. The Byzantine economy was grounded in agriculture and trade, with notable events such as the Crusades and the Battle of Manzikert shaping its historical trajectory.